LIBRARY  ^ 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Deceived        MAR     6    1893  ....  189. 
Accessions  No.  $Q  ^-1 Y  .  Class  No. 


THE    SLOYD    SYSTEM 


WOOD    WORKING 


WITH  A    BRIEF    DESCRIPTION  OF  THE   EVA   RODHE   MODEL  SERIES 

AND    AN     HISTORICAL    SKETCH    OF    THE    GROWTH 

OF    THE    MANUAL    TRAINING    IDEA 


BY 

B.  B.  HOFFMAN,  A.B. 

V   4 

SUPEUINTENDENT   OF   THE   BARON    DE   UIUbCH   FUND   TUADK   SCHOOLS 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN     BOOK     COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,    1892,   BY 

AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 


Press  of  J.  J.  Little  &  Co, 
Astor  Place,  New  York 


PREFACE. 


THE  object  of  this  book  is  to  give  an  account 
of  the  theory  and  practical  application  of  the 
"Naas  System"  of  manual  training.  Although 
the  principles  upon  which  this  system  has  been 
founded  are  very  fully  explained  in  the  two 
educational  monographs  of  the  New  York 
College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers,  entitled 
"  The  Sloyd  in  the  Service  of  the  School/'  by 
Otto  Salamon,  and  "  Manual  Training  in  Ele- 
mentary Schools  for  Boys,"  by  A.  Sluys,  a  full 
exposition  of  the  subject  as  taught  in  the  Naas 
Sloyd  Seminarium,  and  as  incorporated  in  the 
Swedish  public  schools,  has  not  as  yet  appeared. 
The  author  hopes  that  the  following  chapters 
may  in  a  measure  supply  this  want. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  practical  work,  as  few 
technical  expressions  as  possible  have  been  used, 
so  that  a  teacher  who  may  have  had  no  previous 
experience  in  work  of  this  kind  may  neverthe- 
less be  able  to  follow  out  a  course  of  manual 

5 


6  PREFACE 

training  in  wood-work  without  any  outside  assist- 
ance. 

Chapter  III.  is  a  translation  of  Book  V.  of 
Director  Otto  Salamon's  "  Sloyd  och  Folkskola" 
("Sloyd  and  the  Public  School "),  which  gives  an 
account  of  the  history  of  the  manual  training 
idea.  Chapter  VI.  is  a  translation  of  Mr.  Sala- 
mon's article  on  Sloyd  in  the  "Nordeska  Familie 
Bok"  ("  Northern  Encyclopedia"). 

The  book  also  includes  a  list  and  drawings 
of  the  models  of  the  Eva  Rod  he  System  for 
children  of  the  age  of  five  to  eleven  years.  In 
the  "  Pratiska  Arbetskolan  "  ("  Practical  Working 
School")  in  Gothenburg,  this  system  has  been 
taught  for  a  number  of  years,  and  has  met  with 
considerable  success,  filling  the  void  between  the 
Kindergarten  and  the  "  Naas  System." 

The  author  desires  to  express  his  sincere 
thanks  to  Director  Otto  Salamon,  Mr.  Alfred 
Johannson,  Mr.  Jacob  Hyberg  of  Naas,  Sweden, 
and  to  Mr.  George  E.  Tuthill  of  New  York, 
for  valuable  assistance  in  the  preparation  of 
this  work. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTKK  PAGE 

I.  The  Theory  of  the  Sloyd  System  of  Wood- Working 9 

The  Need  for  Manual  Training 9 

Various  Systems  of  Manual  Training.  .... 12 

A  Love  for  Work \ 23 

Respect  for  Rough  Bodily  Labor  25 

Self-reliance  and  Independence 26 

Order  and  Exactness 28 

Attention 29 

Industry  and  Perseverance 30 

Physical  Power 31 

The  Chest,  Head,  and  Feet 34 

Position  in  Sawing  and  Planing 35 

To  Train  the  Eye  to  the  Sense  of  Form 36 

General  Dexterity  of  Hand 36 

II.  Special  Arrangements  of  the  Sloyd 39 

Many  Forms  of  Manual  Work 39 

Arrangement  of  the  Models 44 

Tools  45 

Age  of  Pupils,  Length  of  Lessons,  etc 46 

Who  shall  be  the  Teacher 47 

Individual  and  Class  Teaching 48 

7 


8  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

III.  The  History  of  Manual  Training 53 

Development  of  the  Idea  in  Europe 53 

IV.  Alfred  Johannson's  Naas  Model  Series 91 

Otto  Salamon's  Introduction 91 

The  Naas  Models 96 

Fundamental  Series. 101 

Town  Elementary  Series 191 

High  School  Series 201 

V.  Eva  Rodhe's  Model  Series 219 

Introduction 219 

The  Eva  Rodhe  Models 223 

VI.  The  Progress  of  the  Sloyd  in  the  Elementary  Schools 235 

Extension  of  the  Movement  in  Europe  and  America 235 


CHAPTER    I. 

THE    THEORY    OF   THE    SLOYD    SYSTEM    OF 
WOOD-WORKING. 


THE   NEED   FOR   MANUAL  TRAINING. 

rriHAT  book-training  alone  is  not  sufficient  to 
-L  educate  the  child  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
during  the  past  twenty  years,  throughout  both 
Europe  and  America,  various  systems  of  handi- 
craft work  have  been  introduced  in  the  schools 
as  part  of  the  elementary  school  instruction, 
educators  and  teachers  in  all  countries  having 
found  something  lacking  in  the  ordinary  form 
of  public  education. 

They  saw  that  the  youth,  who,  after  leaving 
the  school,  started  out  to  make  his  own  living, 
was  in  many  cases  quite  unable  to  do  so,  and 
naturally  the  question  arose :  "  Is  the  present  form 
of  public  education  of  a  nature  calculated  to  fit 
the  child  for  a  useful  career  in  life?  If  not,  what 
reforms  can  be  instituted  so  that  the  school 


10  THEORY  OF  THE  SLOYD  SYSTEM 

instruction  will  be  better  able  to  meet  the  exigen- 
cies of  life  and  the  demands  of  the  times  ?  " 

In  all  educational  circles  these  questions  have 
been  discussed;  and,  as  a  direct  result,  we  find 
that  different  systems  of  manual  training  have 
been  applied  as  remedies. 

The  chief  arguments,  and  those  which  have 
greatly  influenced  the  adoption  of  some  of  the 
present  European  systems  of  manual  training, 
are  the  so-called  "  Economic  "  and  the  "  Educa- 
tional "  arguments. 

On  the  one  hand,  the  "  Educational  "  advocates 
urged  that  in  order  to  systematically  develop  the 
natural  forces  it  was  necessary,  from  a  psycho- 
logical point  of  view,  to  try  to  give  to  the  child 
the  ability  to  express  objects  by  means  of  delin- 
eation and  construction,  and  thus  to  add  to  the 
power  of  mere  verbal  description.  In  other 
words,  "  It  is  more  natural  for  the  boy  to  be  able 
to  draw  a  sphere,  or  to  make  one  out  of  wood 
or  clay,  than  to  understand  the  geometrical  defi- 
nition of  a  sphere." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  "  Economic  "  argument 
was  based  more  particularly  upon  the  social  and 
industrial  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  training. 

To  the  "  Economic  "  argument  was  added  the 
"  Physiological."  The  researches  of  Hughlings, 


THE  NEED  FOR  MANUAL   TRAINING  11 

Jackson,  and  Ferrier  were  frequently  quoted. 
Their  experiments  proved  that  the  brain  is  not, 
as  was  formerly  supposed,  a  single  organ  acting 
as  a  whole,  but  a  congeries  of  organs  capable  of 
more  or  less  independent  action. 

In  speaking  of  these  experiments,  and  their 
connection  with  early  manual  education,  a  recent 
writer  says :  "  As  the  development  of  the  motor 
centers  in  the  brain  hinges,  in  a  great  degree, 
upon  the  movements  and  exercises  of  youth,  it 
will  be  readily  understood  how  important  is  the 
nature  of  the  part  played  by  the  early  exercise 
of  the  hand  in  evoking  inherited  skill  and  in 
creating  the  industrial  capabilities  of  a  nation. 

"  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  most  active 
epoch  in  the  development  of  these  motor  centers 
is  from  the  fourth  to  the  fifteenth  year,  after 
which  they  become  comparatively  fixed  and  stub- 
born. Hence  it  can  be  understood  that  boys  and 
girls  whose  hands  have  been  left  altogether  un- 
trained up  to  the  fifteenth  year  are  practically 
incapable  of  high  manual  efficiency  thereafter." 

The  "  Economic  "  advocates  stated,  furthermore, 
that  by  cramming  the  children's  heads  full  of 
book-studies,  and  by  withholding  from  them  the 
exercise  of  their  hands,  the  skill  of  a  future  race 
of  mechanics  was  being  destroyed. 


12  THEORY  OF  THE  SLOTD  SYSTEM 

VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF   MANUAL  TRAINING. 

Of  the  various  systems  of  manual  training  that 
have  been  introduced  in  the  elementary  public 
schools  of  Europe,  the  Delia  Vos  in  Russia,  the 
Salicis  in  France,  and  the  Sloyd  in  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, Denmark,  Finland,  and  recently  in  special 
schools  in  England,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  Italy, 
are  the  most  ^prominent. 

The  French  system,  under  the  name  of  L'en- 
seignement  du  Travail  Manuel,  was  made  compul- 
sory in  the  public  schools  in  1882. 

It  was  mainly  due  to  the  efforts  of  M.  Buisson, 
Director  of  Primary  Instruction,  that  in  this  year 
a  special  normal  school  was  created  in  France, 
in  which  wood-working  at  the  bench  and  lathe, 
iron-working  in  the  smithery,  with  vise  and 
turning-lathe,  drawing,  modeling,  molding,  and 
graphic  designing  were  the  principal  subjects  of 
instruction.  Experimental  physics,  chemistry, 
natural  history,  fencing,  and  fire-practice  were 
likewise  taught. 

This  institution  was  founded  after  a  vote  had 
been  taken  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in 
March  of  1882.  Admission  was  granted  by  com- 
petition to  forty-eight  school-teachers,  graduates 
of  the  Universite  de  France.  It  was  a  one-year 


VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING         13 

course.  To-day  we  find  that  each  year  about 
fifteen  hundred  students  are  being  graduated  from 
the  various  normal  schools  in  France. 

"  In  fifteen  years,"  said  the  late  Inspector- 
General  A.  Salicis,  "  nearly  all  our  primary  high 
schools,  and  most  of  our  forty  thousand  elemen-  (/ 
tary  schools  for  boys  ought  to  provide  our 
2,750,000  male  children  of  the  working  classes 
with  the  instruction  which  will  fit  them  for 
the  future  they  have  in  store.  If  we  do  not 
speak  of  the  girls,  it  is  because  they  have  already, 
to  a  certain  extent,  a  suitable  primary  course 
in  manual  training,  consisting  of  needlework, 
cutting  out,  and  dressmaking," 

The  object  of  this  system  is  clearly  expressed 
in  the  words  of  the  French  minister  of  public 
instruction  :  "  The  love  for  work  can  only  come 
through  the  habit  of  working ;  and,  reciprocally,  v 
the  habit  of  work  can  only  come  by  implanting 
the  love  for  it." 

In  short,  from  this  early  acquired  taste  should 
be  engendered  a  precocious  ability — an  indis- 
pensable condition  of  future  excellency,  and 
consequently  a  condition  of  economic  success  in 
foreign  markets. 

In  1868  a  systematic  method  of  teaching  the 
arts  of  turning,  carpentering,  fitting,  and  forging 


14  THEORY  Of  THE  SLOYD  SYSTEM 

was  introduced  in  the  Imperial  School  at  Mos- 
cow, under  the  directorship  of  Victor  Delia  Vos. 
These  arts  were  taught  because  they  were  con- 
sidered to  be  the  foundation  of  all  mechanical 
pursuits. 

Furthermore,  the  school  council,  who  inaugu- 
rated this  system,  found  it  necessary  to  separate 
the  school  shops  from  the  mechanical  works,  ad- 
mitting pupils  to  the  latter  only  when  they  had 
perfectly  acquired  the  principles  of  practical  labor. 
This  was  done  in  order  to  secure  a  symmetrical 
teaching  of  elementary  practical  work,  as  well 
as  for  the  more  convenient  supervision  of  the 
pupils  while  practically  employed.  It  is  the  first 
known  instance  of  such  an  arrangement. 

The  primary  object  of  the  Russian  method 
/  was  to  teach  the  child  manual  work,  if  not 
directly  for  the  purpose  of  fitting  him  for  a 
future  vocation  in  the  arts  or  trades,  at  least  in 
order  to  make  him  more  capable,  in  case  he 
should  select  some  mechanical  pursuit  as  his 
future  work  in  life. 

Since  1872  the  study  of  the  Sloyd  in  the 
Folkskola  (public  school)  of  Sweden  has  created 
the  most  intense  interest.  The  Sloyd,  a  system 
of  manual  training  in  wood  and  metal  work,  is 
taught  as  an  optional  study  in  fifteen  hundred 


VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING         15 

schools  in  Sweden  to  boys  of  the  age  of  ten  to 
fourteen  years. 

At  the  present  time,  the  Nacis  System,  arranged 
by  Otto   Salamon,  director    of  the  Naas  Normal  J 
College,  has    been  universally  adopted.    This  has 
been  called  the  Sloyd  System.     Li 


The  faults  of  the  old  method  of 
teaching  only  theoretical  subjects  being  recognized, 
the  best  ideas  of  the  teachers  in  this  field  were  stud- 
ied, and  a  method  was  formulated  which  combines 
hand  and  head  work  in  the  simplest  way  possible. 

The  word  system  is  meant  to  convey  the  idea  of 
a  plan  running  through  the  work,  which  rests  on 
a  scientific  basis  and  holds  good  for  those  classes 
for  which  it  is  intended. 

In  speaking  of  the  Sloyd  System,  it  is  necessary 
not  to  confound  the  Sloyd  series  of  models  with 
the  system  itself.  The  two  are  entirely  distinct. 
A  series  of  models  is  never  more  than  the  outward 
expression  of  an  idea.  Models  of  almost  any 
kind  could  be  constructed  upon  the  principles 
that  underlie  those  of  the  Naas  series,  and,  though 
very  different  in  form,  they  might  have  equal 
educational  advantages,  and  might  even  be  more 
applicable  in  certain  instances.  It  is  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  system  that  the  models 
should  be  judged. 


16  THEORY  OF  THE  SLOTD  SYSTEM 

The  word  Sloyd  (Swedish,  Slojd)  is  derived 
from  the  Icelandic,  and  means  dexterity  or  skill. 
In  old  Swedish,  we  find  the  adjective  slog  (artis- 
tic or  skillful).  In  the  Low  German  dialect,  the 
word  Klatern  has  a  similar  signification.  There 
is  in  Sweden  a  distinct  class  of  workmen  known 
as  Sloyders,  whom  "we  would  call  "  jacks  of  all 
trades,"  as  they  are  able  to  do  various  kinds  of 
odd  jobs  about  a  house.  The  Swedish  word 
Slojd  exists  in  other  languages,  but  has  a  more 
restricted  meaning,  referring  to  the  educational 
idea.  In  English  it  is  synonymous  with  manual 
training  as  distinct  from  technical  and  indus- 
trial training. 

The  problem  which  confronted  the  educators 
how  to  create  a  manual  training  system 
which  would  be  a  true  factor  in  public  education. 
Public  education  is  designed  to  be  a  systematic 
influence  for  the  good,  exercised  by  the  teacher 
upon  the  minds  and  characters  of  the  pupils;  it 
aims  to  make  them  more  fit  to  cope  with  the 
difficulties  of  life,  and  thus  to  make  them  use- 
ful and  honorable  members  of  the  community. 
Would  manual  training  be  of  material  aid  in  this 
direction  ? 

The  immediate  object  of  all  public  education 
being  thus  defined,  teachers  came  to  the  conclu- 


VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING         17 

sion  that  the  instruction  should  be  imparted  not 
only  for  the  sake  of  the  actual  knowledge  to  be 
derived,  most  of  which  must  of  necessity  in  time 
be  forgotten,  but  principally  as  a  means  of  devel- 
oping the  character. 

At  one  time  it  was  thought  best  to  allow  the 
home  influence  to  be  the  sole  guide  in  the  forma- 
tion  of  character,  but  the  error  of  such  a  course 
became  evident  when  it  was  considered  that  it 
was  impossible  to  determine  whether  the  home 
influence  would  be  exerted  for  the  good  or  for 
the  evil.  Again,  the  duties  of  the  parents  were 
found  at  times  to  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
prevent  their  giving  the  proper  attention  to  the 
education  of  their  children. 

It  was  therefore  decided  that  the  work  of  ele- 
vating each  life  should  be  carried  on  in  the  school, 
where  the  child  is  competing  all  the  time  for 
some  desired  goal,  and  consequently  soon  begins 
to  feel  the  necessity  of  knowing  and  doing. 

He  feels  this  in  the  school  even  more  than  in 
the  home ;  for  the  school  is  to  the  child  like  a 
little  world,  which  has  much  in  common  with 
the  larger  one  for  which  he  is  preparing  him- 
self. It  therefore  becomes  the  duty  of  the  school 
to  train  the  heart,  the  mind,  and  the  body  har- 
moniously. 


18  THEORY  OF  THE  SLOYD  SYSTEM 

Since  the  work  of  the  school  is  so  important, 
and  since  the  entire  school  life  of  most  children 
must  be  limited  to  a  period  of  from  six  to  eight 
years,  it  seemed  desirable  that  the  school  should 
arrange  its  course  of  study  and  its  methods  of 
instruction  in  such  a  way  that  each  subject  would 
be  a  means  of  educational  development.  Any 
subject  which  did  not  fulfill  this  requirement  was 
not  to  be  taught.  No  subject  was  to  be  taught 
simply  for  the  sake  of  imparting  information. 

By  experiment  it  was  found  that  manual  work 
tended  to  develop  character,  mind,  and  body,  and 
that  it  gave  such  information  as  was  necessary 
and  useful  after  the  school  period  was  passed, 
increasing  in  each  individual  the  capacity  for 
work.  It  was  therefore  decided  that  it  should 
hold  a  place  among  the  school  studies. 

We  must  now  distinguish  between  the  general 
object  of  all  systems  of  manual  training,  and  the 
special  purposes  to  be  served  by  the  system  here 
under  consideration. 

The  object  of  introducing  manual  training  into 
the  public  schools  is  well  defined  by  Prof.  C.  M. 
Woodward,  when  he  says :  "  We  do  not  wish  to 
make  mechanics.  We  teach  banking,  not  because 
we  expect  our  pupils  to  become  bankers ;  we  teach 
drawing,  not  because  we  expect  to  train  architects, 


VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING          19 

artists,  or  engineers ;  and  we  teach  the  use  of 
tools,  the  properties  of  materials,  and  the  meth- 
ods of  the  arts,  not  because  we  expect  our  boys 
to  become  artisans.  We  teach  them  the  United 
States  Constitution  and  some  of  the  Acts  of  Con- 
gress, not  because  we  expect  them  all  to  become 
congressmen.  But  we  do  expect  that  our  boys 
will,  at  least,  have  something  to  do  with  bankers,  ^ 
and  architects,  and  artists,  and  engineers,  and 
artisans ;  and  we  do  expect  all  to  become  good 
citizens.  Our  great  object  is  educational ;  other 
objects  are  secondary." 

The  Sloyd  has  for  its  first  object*  to  give  an 
indirect  preparation  for  life  by  teaching  branches 
of   certain    trades    and    by  imparting   a   general  v 
dexterity  to  the  hand — to  train  the  hand  as  the 
obedient  servant  of  the  brain. 

The  Swedes  set  out  to  accomplish  this  by  teach- 
ing the  boys  in  the  schools  the  rudiments  of 
special  trades;  they  discarded  that  system  some 
years  ago,  adopting  the  present  one  in  its  stead. 

*  These  are  the  aims  of  the  Sloyd  instruction  as  set  forth 
by  Director  Otto  Salamon  in  his  lectures.  It  will  of  course  be 
understood  that  any  statement  of  results  to  be  achieved  must 
in  a  great  measure  be  conditional ;  yet  the  object  of  the  work, 
and  the  probable  effects,  must  surely  be  best  known  to  him 
who  has  arranged  the  course,  and  who  has  daily  watched  its 
effects  upon  the  minds  and  characters  of  many  hundreds  of 
children. 


20  THEORY   OF  THK  SLOYD  SYSTEM 

Experience  taught  them  that  the  boy  was  not  old 
enough  to  know  what  particular  trade  he  should 
choose.  Again,  usually  only  one  trade  could  be 
taught,  and  this,  of  course,  did  not  accomplish 
the  aim  with  which  the  instruction  was  given. 
From  a  practical  point  of  view,  any  one  of  the 
important  trades  is  as  necessary  as  the  other. 

It  was  impossible  to  teach  any  one  trade  thor- 
oughly in  so  short  a  time  as  could  be  devoted 
to  it  at  school ;  and,  as  a  result,  many  children 
left  the  school  impressed  with  the  false  notion 
that  they  were  competent  workmen.  How  fatal 
such  a  spirit  was,  need  hardly  be  stated. 

The  second  object  of  the  Sloyd  is  to  develop 
the  mental  faculties,  and  at  the  same  time  to  im- 
part positive  useful  information.  As  Froebel  had 
provided  a  system  which  gave  expression  to  this 
idea  by  creating  the  kindergarten,  and  as  he  had 
felt  that  this  was  a  principle  which  would  regu- 
late every  step  in  the  child's  education,  so  it  is  to 
this  end,  also,  that  the  Sloyd  aims. 

It  embraces  the  doctrine  which  educators  and 
teachers  have  been  preaching  for  a  long  time — 
that  of  giving  a  practical  direction  to  mental 
activity.  Man  is  not  only  born  to  think,  but 
also  to  do.  He  is  a  creative  animal ;  he  can 
and  must  embody  his  ideas  in  form. 


VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING         21 

The  third  object  of  the  Sloyd  is  to  make  it  a 
means  of  intensifying  intuitions,  thereby  giving 
a  clearer  insight  into  the  nature  of  things.  As 
Herbart  desired  to  see  instruction  more  concen- 
trated,  all  the  subjects  closely  interwoven,  the 
one  serving  to  aid  in  the  comprehension  of  the 
other — so  the  Sloyd,  in  combining  the  theo- 
retical and  practical,  by  teaching  the  elements  of 
the  arts  and  sciences,  and  the  method  of  con- 
struction and  illustration,  aims  to  excite  the 
intuitive  faculty. 

It  is  hardly  likely  that  the  efforts  of  a  child 
will  be  adequate  to  provide  accurate  scientific 
apparatus  to  be  used  in  the  class-room,  but  the 
making  of  objects  directly  connected  with  the 
theoretical  studies  will  increase  the  interest  in 
the  work  and  excite  new  ideas. 

Sloyd  aims  to  cultivate  dexterity  in  the  manip- 
ulation of  tools.  This  is  considered  as  one  of  its 
secondary  aims.  Too  much  stress  must  not  be 
laid  upon  the  use  of  tools,  as  the  pupil  is  apt  to 
lose  interest  in  the  work  if  he  does  not  see  a  full 
and  quick  result  for  his  labor. 

In  France,  at  one  time,  the  children  were  taught 
various  exercises  in  the  use  of  tools,  and  models 
were  not  made  at  all.  In  the  Danish  system,  the 
making  of  models  is  considered  of  quite  second- 


22  THEORY  OF  THE  SLOYD  SYSTEM 

ary  importance.  Very  few  are  made,  and  these 
only  because  they  necessitate  certain  useful  exer- 
cises of  the  tools.  The  use  of  many  tools  should 
be  taught,  but  should  serve  rather  as  a  means 
than  an  end  to  this  instruction. 

Primarily  Sloyd  is  to  be  used  as  a  means  of 
formal  education — formal  as  opposed  to  material. 
A  material  education  seeks  to  impart  a  definite 
knowledge  of  things  for  their  own  sake.  A  for- 
mal education  seeks  chiefly  to  develop  the  innate 
mental  powers,  and  selects  and  imparts  knowledge 
in  order  to  strengthen  character,  will-power,  mem- 
ory, perception — in  short,  all  of  those  faculties  of 
the  mind  which  at  birth  are  dormant,  and  which 
gradually  and  through  education  become  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  degree  marked  characteristics  of 
the  individual. 

All  subjects  can  be  used  both  for  material  and 
formal  instruction — some  more,  some  less.  His- 
tory and  science  give  material  information ;  and 
yet,  if  the  teacher  seeks  to  arouse  the  imaginative 
faculty,  or  to  inspire  a  love  and  sympathy  for 
humanity,  a  formal  training  is  thereby  added. 
The  child  when  he  studies  his  history  lessons 
sees  that  among  the  first  causes  of  a  nation's 
welfare  may  be  traced  the  underlying  principle 
of  order.  Again,  as  he  becomes  acquainted  with 


A  LOVE  FOR   WORK  23 

the  elements  of  the  sciences,  and  as  he  begins 
to  understand  the  workings  of  nature's  laws,  a 
desire  to  systematize  and  arrange  things  in  a 
rational  and  orderly  manner  takes  possession  of 
his  mind.  Mathematics  and  gymnastics  are  of 
more  value  as  formal  than  as  material  means 
of  education,  as  the  former  develops  the  reasoning 
faculty,  while  the  latter  strengthens  the  body. 
Materialists  believe  in  giving  a  knowledge  of  the 
actual  things  met  with  in  life,  while  the  formalists 
lay  stress  upon  the  cultivation  of  correct  habits. 

Sloyd  has  for  its  aims,  as  a  means  of  formal 
instruction — to  instil  a  love  for  work  in  gene- 
ral ;  to  create  a  respect  for  rough,  honest  bodily 
labor ;  to  develop  self-reliance  and  independence  ; 
to  train  to  habits  of  order,  exactness,  cleanliness, 
and  neatness;  to  teach  habits  of  attention,  indus- 
try, and  perseverance ;  to  promote  the  develop- 
ment of  the  physical  powers ;  to  train  the  eye 
to  the  sense  of  form,  and  to  cultivate  the  dex- 
terity of  the  hand. 

A    LOVE     FOR     WORK. 

No  child  can  enjoy  a  healthy  happiness  without 
doing  some  work.  Most -children  are  inquisitive, 
and  want  to  know  facts  about  the  objects  they 
see  and  handle.  As  an  infant,  the  child  con- 


24  THEORY  OF  THE  SLOYD  SYSTEM 

stantly  moves,  and  grasps  at  everything  that  he 
sees ;  and,  as  he  grows  older,  he  shows  similar 
impulses  in  his  delight  in  building,  constructing, 
and  destroying  objects. 

In  order  to  bring  about  a  love  for  work,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  work  be  useful,  otherwise  it 
will  soon  become  tiresome.  The  work  should  not 
require  wearisome  preparatory  exercises ;  this  is 
apt  to  cause  the  distaste  which  we  have  often  seen 
among  apprentices  to  the  various  trades.  The 
work  must  afford  variety — not  necessarily  nov- 
elty, but  there  must  be  ,a  change,  and  not  too 
much  of  one  thing  at  a  time. 

The  children  must  be  capable  of  doing  the 
entire  work  themselves,  for  they  feel  happy  only 
when  they  can  feel  and  say  that  they  have  done 
it  all  themselves.  The  teacher  must  refrain  from 
forcing  a  child  to  accept  much  unnecessary  assist- 
ance. To  help  the  child  to  overcome  all  the  diffi- 
culties which  will  necessarily  arise,  and  then  to 
permit  him  to  claim  the  work  as  his  own,  encour- 
ages him  to  deceive  others,  and,  worse  than  that, 
leads  him  to  deceive  himself. 

The  work  must  be  real,  and  not  "play  at  work." 
If  the  occupation  has  no  serious  importance,  but 
is  merely  given  to  keep  the  children  busy  and 
out  of  mischief,  the  true  educational  value  is  lost. 


RESPECT  FOR  ROUGH  BODILY  LABOR  25 

Finally,  the  work,  when  finished,  must  become 
the  property  of  the  child,  for  he  has  purchased 
the  right  to  it  with  his  own  labor. 

From  the  outset,  the  child  must  be  shown  the 
true  nature  of  the  work,  so  that  he  will  do  it  vol- 
untarily and  in  a  proper  spirit.  M.  Pizzurno  trans- 
lates from  an  Italian  pamphlet  into  French  the 
following  passage :  "  It  is  not  possible  to  produce 
in  facsimile  a  pattern  of  every  article  we  make ; 
but  it  is  important  that  a  thing  be  done  as  accu- 
rately as  possible  from  the  outset,  and  the  earlier 
we  teach  the  child  this,  the  better  it  will  be  in 
the  end." 

RESPECT     FOR     ROUGH     BODILY    LABOR. 

We  no  longer  absolutely  despise  hard  bodily 
labor  as  we  did  a  century  ago,  when  to  do  noth- 
ing was  considered  more  honorable  than  to  work  ; 
yet  even  to-day  we  attach  a  certain  stigma  of 
inferiority  to  all  forms  of  bodily  labor.  In  the 
social  world,  the  clerk  ranks  higher  than  the 
skilled  artisan,  and  the  workmen  themselves  are 
only  too  apt  to  consider  that  their  labor  is  less 
honorable  than  that  of  their  masters. 

This  perverted  idea  may  be  a  survival  of 
the  opinion  that  prevailed  in  the  middle  ages, 
when  all  rough  work  was  done  by  ^serfs.  The 


26  THEORY  OF  THE  SLOYD  SYSTEM 

labor  question  is  one  of  the  important  prob- 
lems of  our  times.  We  know  that  there  are 
many  causes  at  work  which  sow  discord  be- 
tween capitalists  and  laborers.  Would  it  not 
be  a  step  taken  in  the  right  direction  if  each 
child  in  the  rising  generation  could  be  in- 
7  spired  with  a  true  respect  for  rough  physical 
labor,  so  that  as  workman  he  could  find  con- 
tentment in  his  vocation,  and  as  capitalist  he 
would  not  undervalue  the  true  worth  of  his 
artisans?  We  cannot  make  children  respect 
rough  labor  unless  we  let  them  take  part  in  it 
themselves. 

To  inspire  the  child  with  a  respect  for  rough 
labor,  the  models  produced  must  not  be  fancy 
knick-knacks  or  articles  of  luxury.  If  taught 
only  to  do  fancy  and  decoration  work,  he  may  be 
inclined  to  regard  rougher  forms  of  labor  as  of 
inferior  dignity. 

SELF-RELIANCE    AND     INDEPENDENCE. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  we  help  the 
child  to  utilize  that  which  he  knows,  and  force 
him  to  give  some  visible  expression  and  some 
practical  application  to  the  information  he  has 
acquired.  Here  is  one  of  the  teacher's  most 
difficult  tasks.  There  are  many  people  possessed 


SELF-RELIANCE  AND  INDEPENDENCE  27 

of  much  knowledge,  who  totally  lack  the  power 
of  applying  it. 

Home  lessons  are  intended  to  test  the  children's 
power  of  working  alone,  but  they  often  fail  to 
accomplish  this  object,  because  some  parents  allow 
their  children  to  neglect  their  home  work,  while 
others  provide  private  teachers.  Even  in  the 
class-room,  it  is  often  difficult  to  get  clear  answers 
without  occasionally  prompting  and  helping  the 
children. 

By  means  of  the  Sloyd,  however,  it  is  very 
easy  for  the  teacher  to  set  a  certain  task  to  be 
performed,  and  to  detect  and  prevent  any  undue 
assistance. 

Self-reliance  can  best  be  encouraged  if  the  work 
is  adapted  to  the  capabilities  of  the  pupil ;  that 
is,  it  must  be  neither  too  easy  nor  too  difficult. 
If  it  is  too  easy,  no  real  development  is  insured; 
if  too  difficult,  dependence  upon  others  must 
result. 

The  teacher  should  conduct,  control,  and  super- 
intend the  work,  but  must  guard  against  putting 
his  hand  to  it.  Nothing  is  gained  by  getting  the 
child  to  produce  a  faultless  model  if  this  is  not 
the  result  of  his  own  unaided  exertion. 

The  child  must  use  his  judgment  at  every 
step,  must  recogni/e  that  he,  and  not  the  teacher, 


THEORY  OF  THE  SLOYD  SYSTEM 

is  responsible  for  the  work.  This  is  the  only 
way  in  which  independence  can  he  fostered. 

If  necessary,  the  teacher  should  illustrate  on  a 
different  piece  of  wood.  The  rule,  "  Never  toucli 
the  child's  model,"  has  no  exception. 

In  order  to  sustain  the  interest  in  the  work, 
the  child  should  never  be  compelled  to  make 
the  same  model  more  than  twice  in  succession. 

ORDER    AND    EXACTNESS. 

The  habits  of  order  and  exactness,  which  appear 
to  be  contrary  to  the  natural  instincts  of  many 
children,  require  much  training.  Order  refers  to 
an  absolute  idea;  exactness  is  more  relative.  It 
is  quite  possible  to  make  very  exact  models,  and 
yet  remain  very  disorderly  in  the  manner  of 
work.  These  habits  are,  in  a  sense,  the  founda- 
tion of  an  aesthetic  education. 

Disorderly  habits  and  inexactness  are  always 
antagonistic  to  a  true  conception  of  beauty. 
Much  has  been  said  about  giving  the  young  an 
aesthetic  education ;  but  it  seems  that  the  real 
foundation  for  this  instruction  has  been  neg- 
lected, inasmuch  as  stress  has  been  laid  upon 
the  decoration  of  objects  before  the  objects  were 
correctly  made.  As  a  result,  we  find  that  many 
children  think  certain  objects  beautiful,  which 


ATTENTION  29 

are  in  reality  only  highly  ornamented.  The 
child  must  be  taught  from  the  very  beginning 
to  understand  form  as  well  as  decoration. 

No  matter  how  useful  a  dirty  or  repulsive  work 
may  be,  it  is  not  suitable  to  be  taught  in  the 
schools.  The  models  must  always  be  of  such  a 
nature  and  material  that  they  will  admit  of 
being  copied  with  order,  exactness,  neatness,  and 
cleanliness. 

ATTENTION. 

A  teacher's  work  is  useless  if  the  child  is  in- 
attentive. Many  discussions  have  centered  upon 
the  time  to  be  devoted  to  certain  subjects,  but 
the  question  as  to  how  a  subject  can  be  taught  so 
as  to  attract  and  fix  the  attention  is  worthy  of 
greater  consideration  ;  for  more  matter  can  often 
be  taught  in  half  an  hour,  if  it  is  rightly  pre- 
sented, than  in  an  hour,  if  it  fails  to  attract  the 
attention  of  the  pupils.  It  has  been  said,  with 
some  truth,  that  if  we  work  six  hours  a  day, 
we  do  six  hours'  work ;  whereas  if  we  work 
eight  hours,  we  do  but  four  hours'  work. 

In  order  to  attract  the  attention,  the  chief 
thing  necessary  is  to  bring  about  a  true  and  not 
a  specious  interest.  The  former  consists  in  a 
desire  to  understand  the  «ib^tbr  its  own 


30  THEORY  OF  THE  8LOTD  SYSTEM 

sake;  the  latter,  for  the  sake  of  marks  or  rewards. 
In  teaching  theoretical  subjects,  it  is  at  times 
very  difficult  to  know  whether  the  attention  of 
a  child  is  fixed  or  not.  He  may  appear  atten- 
tive, and  yet  his  mind  may  be  far  away. 

In  the  manual  work,  the  pupil's  attention  is 
attracted  in  three  different  directions — on  what 
the  teacher  says,  for  the  pupil  soon  finds  that 
he  cannot  do  his  work  without  attending  very 
closely  to  instructions  ;  upon  himself,  for  other- 
wise the  child  comes  to  grief  with  his  tools ;  and 
upon  the  work  engaged  on,  or  he  spoils  it. 

At  Naas,  experience  has  shown  that  grown 
people  destroy  more  work  and  hurt  themselves 
more  frequently  than  children.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  they  have  more  to  think  about, 
and  cannot  concentrate  their  thoughts  so  fully 
upon  any  one  particular  object. 

Here  it  is  that  the  great  value  of  all  educa- 
tional manual  work  shows  itself — in  cultivating 
the  habit  of  attention.  In  order  to  create  a  habit 
of  attention,  the  work  must  require  mechanical 
as  well  as  mental  effort. 

INDUSTRY     AND     PERSEVERANCE. 

In  the  theoretical  subjects  the  connection  be- 
tween industry  and  success  is  not  apparent.  It 


PHYSICAL  POWER  31 

is  often  difficult  to  impress  upon  the  child's 
mind  the  fact  of  his  inability  to  execute  any 
real  work  without  industry  and  perseverance.  If 
book  studies,  alone  are  relied  upon  to  bring  this 
truth  home,  the  task  of  the  teacher  becomes  all 
the  more  ungrateful,  because  many  children  find 
it  impossible  to  grasp  theoretical  studies.  They 
do  their  best,  and  yet  they  fail. 

The  marking  system  is  by  no  means  a  standard 
which  will  impress  the  child  with  an  idea  of  the 
close  relation  existing  between  industry  and  suc- 
cess. Questions  may  be  given  which  the  child 
can  answer  correctly,  though  he  himself  feels 
that  he  has  not  comprehended  the  lesson.  In 
manual  work,  however,  industry  can  never  fail 
to  secure  success. 

The  school  life  and  the  after  school  life  have 
heretofore  differed  much  in  the  demands  they 
have  made  upon  us.  Society  requires  that  men 
put  their  ideas  into  execution.  Has  the  school 
heretofore  desired  the  same  ?  It  may  be  said  that 
a  combination  of  manual  and  theoretical  work 
reconciles  the  demands  of  the  school  with  those 
of  the  world. 

PHYSICAL    POWER. 

The  ancients,  and  especially  the  Greeks,  with 
their  love  of  beauty  and  harmony,  devoted  much 


32  THEORY  OF  THE  SLOTD  SYSTEM 

time  to  the  symmetrical  development  of  the  hu- 
man body.  No  nation  since  their  time  has  attained 
so  high  a  standard  of  physical  strength  combined 
with  physical  beauty. 

In  the  middle  ages  we  find  two  extremes — 
the  monks,  who  mortified  and  suppressed  every 
power  of  the  body ;  and  the  knights,  who  per- 
formed prodigies  of  strength  and  agility,  while 
their  minds  were  often  as  empty  as  were  their 
helmets. 

In  comparatively  modern  times,  the  education 
of  the  masses  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  mind, 
as  no  organized  provision  existed  for  the  train- 
ing of  the  body. 

To-day  this  question  is  regarded  from  a  scien- 
tific standpoint.  It  is  recognized  that  the  school 
work  must  include  nothing  which  interferes  with 
healthy  bodily  development. 

In  order  to  strengthen  the  body,  the  work  must 
demand  much  movement,  thereby  counteracting 
the  bad  effects  of  sitting  still  in  the  class-room. 
The  principles  which  underlie  any  rational  sys- 
tem of  gymnastics  should  guide  us  in  this  work. 

Every  exercise  should  have  its  appropriate  posi- 
tion, which  should  be  clearly  explained.  It  may 
be  argued  that  this  is  unnecessary,  as  each  form 
of  work  instinctively  suggests  the  most  natural 


PHYSICAL  POWER  33 

attitude ;  but  the  fallacy  of  such  an  argument  is 
shown  by  the  great  mortality  among  men  en- 
gaged in  certain  handicrafts,  which  is  due  to 
the  cramped  and  unhealthy  positions  assumed 
in  their  occupations.  Consumption,  swelling  of 
the  veins  and  arteries,  heart  failure,  and  many 
other  diseases  are  brought  on  by  crowding  the 
chest  and  by  working  with  bent  head. 

Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson,  in  his  popular  work 
on  "  Health  and  Occupation,"  has  given  much 
valuable  information  on  this  subject.  It  is  quite 
natural  for  workmen  to  assume  that  position 
which  will  enable  them  to  finish  their  tasks  in 
the  shortest  period  of  time. 

Knowing  the  evil  effects  of  such  habits,  the 
teacher  should  be  careful  that  the  child  does  not 
assume  a  cramped  position. 

Another  point  to  which  attention  should  be 
directed  is  the  equal  exercise  of  both  sides  of 
the  body.  It  still  remains  to  be  proven  that 
the  left  side  is  naturally  weaker  than  the  right. 
There  are  many  exercises  which  involve  the  use 
of  both  the  right  and  the  left  sides,  such  as 
rowing,  swimming,  boxing,  weaving,  plowing, 
kneading,  digging,  driving,  etc.,  and  if  the  left 
appears  the  weaker,  it  is  probably  due  to  years 
of  unsymmetrical  training. 


34  THEORY  OF  THE  SLOYD  SYSTEM 

% 

Special  consideration  should  be  given  to  the 
positions  taken  by  the  chest,  head,  and  feet. 

THE    CHEST,    HEAD,    AND     FEET. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  chest 
be  permitted  to  expand  freely.  All  prolonged 
work  should  be  executed  with  the  chest  out  and 
the  shoulders  thrown  back.  Contracted  chests 
produce  shortness  of  breath  and  palpitation  of 
the  heart. 

The  head  should  be  held  as  erect  as  possible. 
By  keeping  the  head  in  a  bent  position,  the  pas- 
sage of  the  blood  through  the  veins  of  the  neck 
and  throat  is  impeded  (the  vein  tube  being 
stretched  vertically),  and  at  the  same  time  the 
muscles  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  which  hold  up 
the  head,  become  strained.  When  we  are  erect, 
much  of  the  weight  of  the  head  is  supported 
by  the  spine. 

Again,  in  this  bent  position  we  look  at  objects 
from  a  wrong  angle,  and  thus  strain  and  injure 
the  eyes.  The  work  should  be  held  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  thirty  centimeters  (one  foot)  from 
the  eye. 

In  order  that  a  worker  may  assume  a  firm  and 
stable  position,  the  direction  of  the  resistance 
must  at  all  times  be  taken  into  consideration.  If 


POSITION  IN  8AWIKO  ANJ>  PLANING  35 

the  resistance  comes  from  the  front,  one  foot  must 
be  placed  before  the  other,  for  the  .resistance 
offered  must  be  as  great  a  distance  as  possible 
from  the  center  of  gravity. 

POSITION     IN     SAWING    AND    PLANING. 

In  sawing,  it  is  thought  best  by  some  that  the 
feet  be  placed  at  an  angle  of  90° ;  by  others,  at 
60°.  We  consider  90°  the  better  position.  The 
shoulder  and  arm  must  be  in  line  with  the  direc- 
tion which  the  saw  is  to  take.  In  order  that 
the  head  may  be  held  high  and  the  chest  well 
expanded,  the  benches  should  be  so  made  that 
they  can  be  raised  or  lowered  as  the  work  may 
require. 

When  sawing  with  the  right  arm,  the  left  foot 
should  be  put  straight  out  and  parallel  with  the 
bench.  When  sawing  with  the  left  arm,  the 
right  foot  should  be  put  forward.  The  arm 
should  move  in  the  direction  of  the  resistance. 
The  saw  should  move  in  a  line  parallel  with  the 
bench.  The  body  should  move  slowly  back- 
ward and  forward,  and  its  swing  should  be 
regulated  by  the  amount  of  resistance  to  be 
overcome. 

In  planing,  the  knee  should  be  parallel  to  the 
bench,  and  one  foot  should  be  at  right  angles  to 


36  THEORY  OF  THE  SLOYD  SYSTEM 

the  other.  The  pressure  on  the  plane,  so  that  the 
plane-iron  will  catch  the  wood,  should  come  from 
the  weight  of  the  body.  Very  little  force  should 
be  put  upon  the  plane  with  the  arms. 

In  drilling,  the  weight  of  the  body  should  be 
used  to  overcome  the  resistance,  since  the  pressure 
must  be  vertically  downward. 

TO  TRAIN  THE  EYE  TO  THE  SENSE  OF  FORM. 

A  number  of  models  have  been  included  in 
the  Sloyd  which  might  justly  be  termed  "  sense 
of  form  "  models.  Such  models  are  princi- 
pally those  which  are  bounded  by  curved  and 
regular  surfaces  in  such  a  way  that  their  general 
effect  is  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

As  drawing  trains  the  eye  to  a  sense  of  outline, 
and  modeling  to. a  sense  of  solid  form,  so  the 
manual  wood-work  should  combine  the  two  aims. 
In  .drawing  we  cannot  exercise  the  sense  of  form 
to  the  greatest  possible  extent,  as  we  have  but  a 
plane  surface  on  which  to  represent  that  which  we 
see.  An  important  requisite  is  that  all  the  models 
be  artistic  in  form. 


A  general    dexterity    of  hand    can    only   result 
from    the    education    of     many    powers    of    the 


GENERAL  DEKTKRLTT  OF  HAND  37 

hands.  It  is  not  special  dexterity,  such  as  we 
see  in  mechanics  or  factory  employes,  though  it 
always  facilitates  the  acquirement  of  special  dex- 
terity. Sir  Charles  Bell  in  his  treatise  "  On  the 
Hand,"  gives  us  an  excellent  idea  of  its  infinite 
uses. 

The  following  are  a  few  interesting  examples 
of  the  great  extent  to  which  hand  dexterity  may 
be  developed  : 

1.  Two  hundred  and  twenty-one  words  were  written  on  a 
grain  of  wheat. 

2.  A  Polish  monk  wrote  the  whole  of  the  Iliad  on  a  piece 
of  paper  that  could  be  put  into  a  nut-shell. 

3.  A  Swede,  Nauringaros,  gave  Pope  Paul  the  Fifth  twelve 
plates  of  ivory  which  were  so  small  that  they  fitted  inside  of 
a  pepper-corn. 

4.  A  gold  chain  of  fifty  links,  which  could  only  be  seen 
when  placed  on.  white  paper,  was  presented  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. 

These,  then,  are  the  aims  of  the  Sloyd,  as  a 
means  of  formal  education,  while  the  material 
element  may  be  considered  to  have  been  provided 
for  in  the  power  imparted  of  manipulating  tools 
and  of  producing  models.  The  real  worth  of  the 
instruction  is  naturally  something  more  than  the 
making  of  any  series  of  models.  From  a  mone- 
tary point  of  view,  much  unnecessary  time  and 


38  THEORY  OF  THE  8LOTD  SYSTEM 

labor  are  expended  upon  the  models,  but  it  is  not 
correct  to  judge  an  educational  system  solely  from 
a  monetary  point  of  view. 

There  are  many  ways  in  which  Sloyd  can  be 
taught.  It  may  be  done  with  a  view  to  economy, 
to  utility,  or  as  a  ready-made  plan  of  corporal 
work  ;  but  the  true  way  to  bring  about  a  lasting 
benefit  is  to  regard  it  altogether  as  a  means  of 
education,  and  to  attend  to  the  teaching  of  its 
most  minute  details  with  this  thought  ever  upper- 
most in  the  mind. 


CHAPTER    II. 

SPECIAL  ARRANGEMENTS  OF  THE  SLOYD. 


MANY    FORMS    OF     MANUAL    WORK. 

THE  simultaneous  employment  of  many  forms 
of  manual    training   in  the  public   schools 
is   for   several    reasons    detrimental    to    progress. 
A  sufficient  number  of  subjects  is  already  being 

J  «/  O 

taught,  and  every  branch  of  manual  training  is 
a  distinct  subject  in  itself.  If  the  same  advan- 
tages can  be  derived  from  one  form  of  this  work 
as  from  several  forms,  it  is  obviously  better,  on 
grounds  of  economy  of  time,  labor,  and  expense, 
to  confine  the  teaching  to  one. 

When  many  kinds  of  manual  training  are 
undertaken  at  once,  proficiency  cannot  be 
attained  in  any  of  them  in  the  limited  time 
devoted  to  each,  the  interest  of  the  children  is 
diverted,  and  in  the  end  the  true  value  is  lost. 
If,  however,  we  restrict  the  teaching  to  one  par- 
ticular kind  of  manual  work,  it  is  necessary  that 
great  caution  be  observed  in  choosing  the  best. 

39 


40          SPECIAL  ARRANGEMENTS  OF  THE  SLOYD 

The  various  handicrafts  have  been  subjected 
to  the  same  tests,  with  the  results  shown  in  the 
table  on  p.  41.  The  following  ten  points  have 
been  considered  : 

1.  Is    the    work  in  accordance  with  the   average   child's 
capabilities  ? 

2.  Does  it  excite  and  sustain  interest  ?     That  is,  after  the 
novelty  has  worn  off,  does  the  interest  flag  or  increase  with 
each  lesson  ? 

3.  Are  the  models  of  such  a  nature  that  they  can  be  used  ? 
Are  they  as  serviceable  as  an  artisan's  work,  even  though 
they  are  not  as  correctly  finished  ? 

4.  Does  the  work   tend   to  cultivate  a  respect  for  rough 
bodily  labor? 

5.  Does  it  train  to  habits  of  order  and  exactness  ? 

6.  Is  it  of  a  character  that  admits  of  habits  of  cleanliness 
and  neatness  ? 

7.  Does  it  cultivate  the  sense  of  form  ? 

8.  Is  it  beneficial  from  the  hygienic  point  of  view  ?     Does 
it  counteract  the  evil  effects  of  sitting  still  ? 

9.  Docs  it  allow  of  methodical  arrangement  ?      Can   the 
exercises  be  so  arranged  as  to  enable  the  pupil  to  proceed 
from  the  easy  to  the  difficult,  from  the  simple  to  the  complex, 
so  that  at  the  beginning  the  work  docs  not  discourage  him 
by  its  difficulty  ? 

10.  Does  it  teach  general  dexterity  of  hand  ? 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  the  car- 
pentry Sloyd  answers  all  of  these  questions  in  the 
affirmative. 


MANY  FORMS  OF  MANUAL  WORK 


i  piiBq  jo  A":ji 
[iuoui>i? 

830(1 


O        O        O        O        g        o 

K    *    *    fc    I    K 


o      o      o 

ft   ft   ft 


jo 


880(1 


I  S 


o      o 

ft  ft 


jo  juuxf  oma 
-i3A"q  bqj  UIGJJ 
li?pgouaq  11  sj  ' 


o      o      o      o      o      o      o 

fa        ^       ^       ^       fa        ^       ^ 


o      o      o 

ft  ft  ft 


(JTUJOJ 
JO  3SUDS  Oq?  84TU 


gsoui[in?o[0     jo 
sao(i 


X»     o 
•9    ft 


i  S90U 

-?OT?xa   pin?  jap 
-jo  jo  8}iqi?q  05 


>-°      ° 


qSnoj 


A"[ipoq 
joj 

OAlS     •}!    830(1 


g    1     gs  S    1    g    I 


I  " 


iPJ 

-osn  opiHu  spot 
-((o    oq)    ojy 


-ui  uiBjsns  puu 
o;pxa  it  SOOQ 


^     ^ 


S  « 

e    H  * 

ft     ««8  J8 

o  o 

ft  ft 


oqi    ipiAV    oout? 

-pJOOOT?  Ill  51  S I 


H    ft 


o     g 


M 


bf) 


1 .  1 1 1  f  * 

1  I  I  I  I  I  a  i 
I  2  1  g-  I  I  g  I 

^1-2 


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&  1 1 


s 

Of       X! 


II 6- 


33       ,S       X       -5 


42         SPECIAL  ARRANGEMENTS  OF  THE  SLOYJ) 

A  marked  difference  exists  between  carpentry 
Sloyd  (manual  wood-work)  and  trade  carpentry, 
as  regards  the  character  of  the  objects  made. 

In  the  former  the  objects  are  generally  smaller ; 
and  as  to  the  tools  used,  the  carpenter  has  spe- 
cial planes,  while  in  the  Sloyd  the  knife  is  the 
essential  tool,  in  place  of  which  the  carpenter 
uses  the  chisel. 

The.  ax,  bench-knife,  and  spoon-iron  (which, 
though  not  carpenters'  tools,  are  used  by  build- 
ers, wheelwrights,  and  coopers)  are  also  used 
in  the  Sloyd. 

Finally,  there  is  a  difference  in  the  manner 
in  which  the  work  is  done.  In  the  trade  car- 
pentry there  is  a  division  of  labor.  In  the  Sloyd 
the  complete  object  is  made  by  one  person. 

With  the  Sloyd,  wood-carving  and  wood-turn- 
ing may  be  combined.  The  teacher  may  include 
both  in  the  manual  instruction,  provided  they 
do  not  prove  too  difficult. 

When  wood-carving  is  included  in  the  course 
of  instruction,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
objects  to  be  carved  are  themselves  correctly 
finished,  as  ornament  should  never  conceal 
imperfect  work. 

The  following  are  the  principles  which  have 
served  as  guides  in  the  choice  of  the  models. 


MANY  FORMS  OF  MANUAL    WORK  43 

1.  All  articles  of  luxury  have  been  excluded. 

2.  The  objects  have  a  practical  value ;  that  is,  they  can  be 
used. 

3.  The  objects  can  be  finished  by  the  pupils  themselves 
wi tli out  any  help. 

4.  The  objects  are  such  that  they  can  be  made  entirely  of 
wood.     This  does  not  mean  that  the  requisite  fixings,  such  as 
screws,  hangers,  hinges,  etc.,  may  not  be  employed,  but  that 
the  child  should  not  be  required  to  make  these  things. 

5.  The  work  is  not  to  be  polished.     This  refers  to  the  use 
of  clear-varnishes,  French  polish,  etc. ;  sand-paper  may  be 
used.     The  object  is  to  encourage  the  children  to  work  well, 
and  not  to  think  too  much  of  the  surface  appearance. 

6.  As  little  material  as  possible  is  to  be  used.     The  lesson 
to  l)e  enforced  is  that  the  value  of  the  model  depends  not 
upon  the  material  used,  but  upon  the  amount  of  real  work 
expended  upon  it. 

7.  The  pupils  are  to  learn  to  work  both  in  hard  and  soft 
wood.     It  is  not  wise  to  have  them  work  too  much  in  the 
hardest  kinds  of  wood,  as  it  is  a  great  strain  upon  their  physi- 
cal strength,  and  consequently  would  soon  prove  beyond  their 
powers. 

8.  Turning  and  carving  are  to  be  used  as  little  as  possible, 
although  both  may  be  included.     Experience  has  shown  that 
thoy  are  not  as  valuable  as  the  carpentry  Sloyd.     The  time 
for  manual  work  in  the  public  school  is  of  necessity  limited, 
and   to    teach   turning    and    carving    for    educational   pur- 
poses would  require  as  much  time  as  is  necessary  for  the 
Sloyd.     Carving  in  all  cases  ought  to  be  left  for  the  end  of 
the  course. 

9.  The  models  must  develop  the  pupils'  sense  of  form  and 
beauty.     In  order  to  attain  this  object  the  series  should  in- 


44          SPECIAL  ARRANGEMENTS  OF  THE  SLOYD 

elude  a  number  of  examples  of  form,  such  as  spoons,  ladles, 
and  other  curved  objects. 

10.  The  whole  series  must  be  arranged  so  as  to  teach  the 
pupils  the  use  of  all  the " necessary  tools,  and  to  know  and 
perform  the  most  important  manipulations  connected  with 
wood-work.  Each  model  ought  to  complete  the  preceding 
ones,  and  to  teach  the  use  of  some  new  tool  or  some  new 
kind  of  wood.  The  models  constitute  a  series  only  when 
there  is  a  logical  connection  between  all  of  them,  each  one 
being  the  supplement  as  well  as  the  complement  of  its  prede- 
cessor. 

ARRANGEMENT    OF   THE   MODELS. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  models  the  following 
points  have  been  kept  in  view : 

1.  The  series  must  progress  without  break  from  the  easy  to 
the  difficult,  from  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

2.  There  must  be  a  refreshing  variety  both  in  the  exercises 
and  in  the  models. 

3.  The  first  models  of  the  series  should  be  of  such  a  nature 
that  they  can  be  quickly  executed.     The  tasks  must  be  such 
that  results  will  speedily  follow,  so  that  the  children  by  de- 
grees will  gain  sufficient  confidence  to  undertake  work  requir- 
ing more  extended  time. 

4.  In  making  the  first  models,  only  a  small  number  of  tools 
should  be  used. 

5.  The  models  must  follow  in  a  progressive  order,  so  that 
by  means  of  the  preceding  work  the  pupils  will  have  attained 
the  necessary  aptitude  to  make  the  succeeding  without  any 
direct  help  from  the  teacher,  and  consequently  it  will  not  be 
more  difficult  to  make  one  model  than  another.     The  mak- 


TOOLS  45 

ing  of  the  forty-nine  previous  models  should  render  No.  50 
no  more  difficult  than  No.  1  was  at  the  outset. 

6.  The  models  must  be  of  such  a  nature  that  the  child  is 
able  to  make  an  exact  copy  and  not  only  an  approximate  one. 

7.  The  knife  should  be  used  as  the  fundamental  tool.     As 
nearly  every  child  knows   how   to   use   the  knife,  we   have 
hereby  a  means  of  enabling  the  pupil  to  proceed  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown. 

8.  Rather  hard  wood  should  be  used  for  the  first  models,  as 
it  is  more  difficult  to  work  with  the  knife  upon  soft  wood. 

TOOLS. 

It  is  desirable  that  each  pupil  have  a  set  of 
tools,  and  be  held  responsible  to  keep  them  sharp 
and  in  good  order.  A  special  cupboard  should 
be  placed  in  the  room,  wherein  most  of  the  tools 
can  be  put  away  after  the  school  hours.  Each 
tool  should  be  numbered  according  to  the  bench 
to  which  it  belongs.  The  art  of  sharpening 
tools  must  be  taught. 

An  opinion  has  prevailed  that  the  tools  used 
in  the  school  should  be  of  smaller  size  than 
those  of  the  trades.  This  idea  was  carried  out 
in  Denmark  as  well  as  in  France  until  within 
recent  years. 

Experience  shows,  however,  that  children  of 
the  age  of  eleven  to  fourteen  years  are  quite 
capable  of  using  full-sized  tools,  and  even  manage 
to  work  better  in  consequence  thereof,  since  the 


46          SPECIAL  ARRANGEMENTS  OF  THE  SLOYD 

weight  of  the  tool  frequently  assists  in  the  doing 
of  the  work,  as,  for4  instance,  in  planing. 

Furthermore,  if  small  tools  are  used,  the  par- 
ents and  the  children  are  not  apt  to  regard  the 
work  as  real.  We  have  not  as  yet  seen  any 
advantage  attending  the  adoption  of  small  tools 
in  the  manual  work. 

AGE    OF     PUPILS,     LENGTH     OF    LESSONS,     ETC. 

The  Naas  System  is  not  suitable  for  children 
under  ten  years  of  age.  In  Sweden  the  Sloyd  is 
taught  in  the  public  school  to  boys  of  the  age 
of  eleven  to  fourteen  years.  The  amount  of 
time  that  is  devoted  to  it  is  from  four  to  six 
hours  a  week,  or,  on  an  average,  about  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  hours  a  yea,r. 

It  has  been  found  best  to  extend  the  duration  of 
each  lesson  to  two  hours,  as  one  hour  is  too  short 
to  admit  of  arranging  the  benches,  tools,  and 
wood,  as  well  as  of  doing  the  work,  while  three 
hours  proves  too  great  a  tax  upon  the  child's 
strength. 

Manual  work  is  perhaps  best  taught  in  the 
middle  of  the  morning,  as  it  then  serves  to  break 
the  monotony  of  too  many  book  studies,  and 
yet  the  children  are  not  too  tired  to  enjoy  and 
take  an  interest  in  the  exercise. 


WHO  SHALL  BE  THE  TEACHER?  47 

WHO    SHALL    BE    THE    TEACHER? 

The  teacher  is  the  most  important  factor  in 
education.  As  is  the  teacher,  so  are  the  pupils. 
The  earnest  spirit,  of  the  teacher  working  amid 
poor  surroundings  will  bring  about  better  results 
than  fine  premises,  external  advantages,  and  ex- 
pensive apparatus.  The  teacher  must  assume  a 
great  responsibility,  and  for  this  reason  artisans 
who  are  not  teachers  should  not  be  employed 
to  give  instruction  in  manual  wood-work. 

The  greatest  recommendation  for  the  artisan  is 
his  superior  technical  skill.  The  principle  that 
must  not  be  lost  sight  of  is  that  this  instruction 
is  an  educational  means,  and  that  only  a  teacher 
can  properly  impart  his  knowledge  and  impress 
it  upon  the  child's  mind.  An  artisan  may  be  a 
good  teacher,  in  which  case  he  is  equally  quali- 
fied to  instruct,  and  a  teacher  may  in  reality  not 
be  a  teacher  at  all ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  artisan 
lacks  a  professional  training — an  important  req- 
uisite for  the  making  of  a  good  teacher. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  take  a  course 
in  manual  work,  and  to  become  sufficiently  ac- 
quainted with  the  manipulation  of  tools  to  be 
able  not  only  to  understand  the  method,  but 
also  to  make  the  models. 


48        SPECIAL   ARRANGEMENTS  OF  THE  SLOYD 


SHOULD    THE    INSTRUCTION    BE    INDIVIDUAL     OR 
CLASS    TEACHING? 

Manual  training  loses  much  of  its  educational 
v  value  when  it  is  not  taught  individually.  Edu- 
cators have  agreed  that  the  nature  of  the  child 
is  the  basis  upon  which  educational  systems  must 
be  built.  Since  children  have  different  capabili- 
ties, and  since  there  are  as  many  individualities 
as  there  are  children,  it  is  evident  that  the 
same  instruction  will  not  suit  all. 

To  be  sure,  book  studies  are  taught  by  class 
teaching,  but  this  is  only  a  sad  necessity.  Teach- 
ers generally  are  of  the  opinion  that  these  sub- 
jects could  be  better  taught  individually.  From 
an  economical  point  of  view,  the  only  advantage 
in  class  teaching  is  that  it  permits  the  teacher 
to  take  more  pupils  under  his  care  at  one  time 
than  individual  teaching  does. 

In  the  Sloyd  the  teacher  may  give  instruction 
to  a  class  of  any  number  of  pupils  in  the  method 
of  making  the  models,  but  he  can  neither  super- 
vise nor  control  the  work  of  more  than  sixteen 
to  eighteen  children  at  one  time. 

In  manual  training,  several  methods  of  class 
teaching  have  been  tried  ;  for  instance,  in  France 
and  in  some  Danish  schools  the  scholars  have 


INDIVIDUAL  AND  CLASS  TEACHING?  49 

kept  time  while  at  work,  going  through  the 
exercises  at  the  command  of  the  teacher.  The 
result  of  this  was  that  the  pupils  did  not  keep 
together  in  the  amount  of  work  accomplished, 
as  one  child  with  several  movements  of  the 
same  tool  did  as  much  work  as  it  took  another 
child  many  movements  to  accomplish. 

Supplementary  work  was  also  attempted.  This 
proved  unsuccessful,  because  the  boys  who  re- 
ceived the  supplementary  work  and  a  repetition 
of  the  exercises  were  very  frequently  just  those 
who  needed  it  least ;  and  thus,  having  been  kept 
back,  they  were  prevented  from  learning  certain 
necessary  manipulations,  and  left  school  without 
having  completed  the  entire  work.  It  was  also 
found  that  the  boy  who  did  supplementary  work 
required  as  much  supervision  as  though  he  pro- 
ceeded with  the  ordinary  series. 

The  most  common  method  in  the  class-teach- 
ing system  of  manual  work  is  to  allow  those 
pupils  who  have  finished  the  model  to  wait  for 
the  rest  to  catch  up,  without  doing  anything  at 
all.  The  excellence  of  this  method  requires  no 
comment. 

Of  course  there  are  other  opinions  on  this  sub- 
ject. One  of  our  American  authorities  believes 
that  class  instruction  is  preferable,  and  states 


50  SPECIAL  ARRANGEMENTS  OF  THE  SLOTD 

that  individual  instruction  drives  pupils  into 
enforced  idleness  while  waiting  for  the  teacher. 

In  Sweden,  where  individual  instruction  has 
been  practically  applied  for  many  years,  this  has 
only  been  found  to  be  the  case  at  the  very 
outset.  Each  pupil  soon  became  sufficiently  in- 
formed to  go  on  with  the  work  quite  inde- 
pendently of  the  teacher,  since  the  models  are 
arranged  according  to  the  child's  capabilities. 
Later  on,  when  the  work  became  more  intri- 
cate with  a  second  model  in  hand,  the  boys 
have  rarely,  if  ever,  been  found  idle. 

The  London  "  Journal  of  Education,"  in  dis- 
cussing this  question,  says :  "  If  the  class  be 
taught  as  a  unit,  what  of  the  enforced  idleness 
of  those  who  work  too  fast,  or  of  the  enforced 
scampering  of  those  who  work  too  slow  ?  " 

Our  American  author  in  a  former  work,  speak- 
ing of  the  Swedish  Sloyd  system,  mentions  the 
following  three  objections  to  this  system : 

1.  The  manual  training  is  limited  to  wood-work. 

2.  The  pupils  are  taught    and    shown  about  their  work 
separately ;  class  instruction  is  not  given,  and  the  several 
pupils  in  the  laboratory  are  doing  very  different  things. 

3.  The  things  wrought  are  household  furniture  or  imple- 
ments and  utensils  to  be  carried  home  and  used  there.    There 
appears  to  be  no  aim  beyond  making  thrifty  householders. 


INDIVIDUAL   AND   CLASS  TEACHING.  51 

Regarding  the  first  objection,  the  advocates  of 
the  Sloyd  movement  regret  that  the  author  has 
quoted  this  information  without  due  authority, 
for  in  the  public  schools  of  Stockholm,  Gothen- 
burg, and  in  almost  all  of  the  towns  of  Sweden, 
Sloyd  metal  work  and  Sloyd  cardboard  work 
have  been  taught  for  many  years. 

The  second  objection — namely,  to  individual  in- 
struction— is  not  treated  at  all  in  this  earlier  book, 
and  in  the  later  one  is  confined  entirely  to  the 
"  enforced  idleness  while  waiting  for  the  teacher  " 
theory.  The  author  likewise  promises  to  show 
that  "  the  evils  resulting  from  class  instruction  " 
are  not  real,  but  only  apparent  evils.  This  still 
remains  to  be  shown. 

In  regard  to  the  third  objection,  in  which  it  is 
claimed  that  the  objects  should  be  of  less  impor- 
tance than  the  method  and  aim  of  the  work, 
the  question  arises  whether  the  making  of 
"  thrifty  householders "  should  not  be  an  aim 
in  public  education. 

The  same  author  continues :  "  The  attractive- 
ness of  the  Swedish  word  Sloyd  is  that  (to  us)  it 
has  no  etymological  meaning  to  bias  us.  It  shall 
forever  mean  to  us  just  what  we  see  it  means 
when  we  see  the  things  that  the  Swedes  call  by 

that  name." 
4 


52          SPECIAL  ARRANGEMENTS  OF  THE  SLOYD 

In  spite  of  this  statement,  it  seems  that  the 
Sloyd  has  a  special  meaning  for  this  author, 
which,  though  not  an  etymological  one,  neverthe- 
less biases  his  opinion  most  strongly,  and  which 
he  takes  special  care  to  emphasize  by  calling  the 
Sloyd  models  "  things." 

Again,  on  close  examination,  these  "  things  " 
will  be  found  to  contain  more  exercises  in  wood- 
working than  any  series  of  wood  models  used  in 
our  American  manual  training  schools,  which 
are,  practically  speaking,  high  schools,  and  for 
which  the  Sloyd  system  is  not  intended. 

The  slight  put  by  so  great  and  eminent  a  writer 
upon  the  Sloyd  system  is  likewise  imposed  upon 
the  various  other  European  systems  of  educa- 
tional manual  training,  as  they  are  all  practically 
ignored.  This  seems  very  strange  indeed,  as  the 
European  systems  existed  prior  to  the  establish- 
ment of  any  manual  training  school  in  America, 
and  it  would  be  vain  to  deny  that  many  of  our 
best  ideas  on  this  subject  have  been  gathered  from 
the  tried  experiences  in  European  institutions. 


CHAPTER     III. 

THE    HISTORY   OF   MANUAL  TRAINING. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  MANUAL  TRAINING   IDEA  IN 
VARIOUS    EUROPEAN    COUNTRIES. 

(^4  Translation  from  the  Swedish  of  Salamorfs  "  Sloydskola  and  Folk- 
skola,"  Boole  V.} 

THE  application  of  manual  training  to  pub- 
lic education  is  not  a  new  idea.  The  his- 
tory of  pedagogy  for  centuries  back  confirms  this 
statement. 

Luther  and  Zwingli,  reformers  of  the  Church 
and  the  school,  have  written  widely  on  this 
subject. 

Amos  Commenius,  savant  and  teacher,  who, 
driven  from  his  native  town  by  the  religious 
persecutions  of  the  thirty  years'  war,  found  a 
home  in  every  place  where  science  and  scientists 
were  honored,  and  who,  without  doubt,  may  be 
called  the  "  father  of  pedagogy,"  has  in  his 
several  works  shown  the  true  significance  of 
manual  training  as  a  means  of  education. 

53 


54  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

Francke,  who  founded  the  "  religious  direction  " 
in  pedagogy,  gave  instruction  in  wood-turning, 
pasteboard  work,  and  glass-cutting  at  his  remark- 
able Halle  schools.  Their  institution  dates  back 
to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

John  Locke,  the  sharp-sighted  English  philos- 
opher, says  in  his  well-known  essay,  "  Some 
Thoughts  Concerning  Education,"  that  chil- 
dren from  an  early  age  should  be  trained  in 
corporal  work ;  and  he  recommends  carpentry 
and  gardening. 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  the  many-sided  genius, 
whose  "  Emile,"  or  "On  Education,"  is  a  peda- 
gogical gold-mine  (and  this  metaphor  holds 
good  especially  when  we  consider  that  the  noble 
metal  must  always  be  freed  of  much  dross), 
requires  that  his  pupils  be  taught  a  trade,  and 
after  careful  investigation  arrives  at  the  conclu- 
sion, that  of  all  trades  carpentry  is  best  adapted 
for  educational  purposes.  "  He  must  work  like 
a  peasant,  and  think  like  a  philosopher,  in  order 
not  to  become  good  for  nothing  or  a  savage ; 
and  the  great  secret  of  education  is  to  combine 
mental  and  physical  work  so  that  the  one  kind 
of  exercise  refreshes  for  the  other." 

The  philanthropists  Basedow,  Salzmann,  and 
Campe  replanted  Rousseau's  ideas  on  German 


DEVKLOPMKNT  OP  MANUAL   TRAINING  55 

soil,  and  in  their  writings  have  laid  great  stress 
upon  the  manner  in  which  they  applied  these 
principles. 

Pesfaloz&i,  who  introduced  intuition  in  in- 
struction, and  love  in  education,  speaks  of  the 
importance  of  a  methodical  arrangement  in  the 
teaching  of  manual  training. 

Herbart,  the  creator  of  the  newer  scientific 
pedagogics,  sees  in  hand-labor  an  almost  indis- 
pensable means  of  building  up  the  child's  char- 
acter, and  especially  the  power  of  self-reliance. 

Friedricli  Froebel,  founder  of  the  "  Kinder- 
garten," thinks  that  activity  exists  before  knowl- 
edge, and  is  the  cause  of  it.  He  places  manual 
work  in  the  center  of  the  instruction  system, 
and  groups  all  the  other  studies  around  it. 

It  is  not  only  these  great  thinkers  who  have 
recognized  the  importance  of  manual  instruction. 
Many  suggestions,  both  theoretical  and  practical, 
have  come  from  other  sources,  and  more  especially 
so  during  the  last  twenty  years,  since  the  question 
of  manual  training  and  its  place  among  school 
subjects  has  become  one  of  the  day. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  some  of  the 
educators  who  have  been  much  interested  in  this 
work,  and  whoso  ideas  are  worthy  of  our  careful 
consideration. 


56  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

Martin  Planta  (1727-1772),  a  Swiss  clergyman 
of  evangelical  faith,  who  in  many  respects  may 
be  regarded  as  the  predecessor  of  his  great  coun- 
tryman Pestalozzi,  introduced  at  the  Haldenstein 
school  near  Chur,  which  was  afterward  moved  to 
the  Castle  of  Marschlin,  a  system  of  manual  work 
for  educational  purposes.  He  busied  his  pupils 
with  wood-turning,  pasteboard  work,  glass-cutting, 
gardening,  and  similar  occupations.  Barometers, 
thermometers,  and  various  physical  and  mathe- 
matical instruments  were  made.  Planta 's  activity 
was  limited  entirely  to  this  institution. 

Ferdinand  Kinderman  (1740-1801),  the  Bohe- 
mian school  reformer,  at  this  time  advanced 
the  idea  of  introducing  manual  work  in  the 
public  elementary  schools.  It  is  to  him  that 
is  due  the  honor  of  being  the  first  to  bring  this 
question  into  public  discussion.  In  his  work 
"  Von  der  Entstehung  und  Verbreitungs-art  der 
Industrie  Klassen  in  der  Volkschulen  des  Konigs- 
reichs  Bohmens "  ("  An  Account  of  the  Origin 
and  Increase  of  the  Industrial  Classes  in  the 
Public  Schools  of  the  Kingdom  of  Bohemia"), 
Kinderman  says:  "  After  carefully  examining  the 
work  of  our  primary  schools,  it  became  apparent 
to  me  that  the  children  were  least  of  all  occu- 
pied with  those  studies  which  would  be  of  most 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  57 

service  to  them  after  the  school  period.  I  became 
convinced  that  this  was  the  cause  of  much  lazi- 
ness and  poverty,  of  unfruitful  religious  life,  of 
neglect  of  God's  decrees,  and  of  great  wickedness. 
I  set  myself  the  task  of  studying  the  nature  of 
the  child.  The  common  opinion  that  much  can 
be  done  with  the  young  mind  contributed  largely 
to  strengthen  me  in  my  determination  to  carry 
out  my  ideas. 

"  Before  long  I  became  convinced  that  our 
primary  schools,  even  if  they  are  worthy  of  being 
followed  as  examples  in  some  respects,  certainly 
do  not  come  up  to  the  highest  standards,  and, 
besides,  do  not  in  any  way  fulfill  the  aim  of  pre- 
paring the  pupils  for  their  life-work.  It  is  not 
enough  to  cram  the  heads  full  of  information,  and 
take  no  step  to  create  a  love  for  work.  Work- 
ing classes  and  reading  classes  must  be  combined. 
This  is  the  only  way  that  industry  can  be  made  a 
national  characteristic.  I  became  all  the  more 
eager  to  bring  about  a  reform,  as  my  experience 
taught  me  that  the  most  industrious  people  were 
always  the  most  moral." 

Kinderman  established  a  school  in  Kaplitz,  a 
small  town  in  Budweiser  Kreitz,  where  he  like- 
wise officiated  as  clergyman.  In  1773  this 
school  became  a  state  normal  college,  and  was 


58  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

enlarged  in  accordance  with  Kinderman's  ideas. 
His  work  was  appreciated  so  niuch,  that  in  1781, 
according  to  his  account,  some  two  hundred 
manual  training  departments  were  organized  in 
connection  with  the  primary  schools  of  Bohemia. 
Instruction  was  given  to  boys  and  girls  in  spin- 
ning and  knitting,  and  in  some  classes  manual 
wood-working  was  taught. 

Von  Helfest,  the  author  of  the  "  Austrian  Pri- 
mary School,"  says  in  this  work :  "  We  have 
little  left  of  Kinderman's  great  labor,  except  the 
healthy  effect  that  can  still  be  traced  as  a  direct 
result  of  his  work.  If  Bohemia's  industries  rank 
highest  in  Austria,  among  the  causes  that  have 
brought  about  this  happy  result  the  influence  of 
the  great  schoolman,  Ferdinand  Kinderman,  will 
not  be  forgotten.  He  had  hardly  any  public  sup- 
port, but  by  his  great  wisdom  and  untiring  energy 
he  urged  a  collaboration  with  men  of  all  classes. 
He  has  made  the  primary  school  the  foundation  of 
the  welfare  of  our  state.  If  you  will  ask  the  ma- 
jority of  those  who  during  the  early  part  of  the 
century  were  successful  farmers,  thriving  mer- 
chants, or  wealthy  manufacturers,  to  what  cause 
they  would  attribute  the  first  source  of  their 
material  prosperity,  I  am  sure  they  will  without 
exception  answer  :  *  It  was  the  school  which  gave 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  59 

us  the  love  and  desire  for  work,  and  showed  us 
the  blessing  of  industry,  order,  and  economy."3 

In  evangelical  Germany,  the  first  manual  train- 
ing school  was  established  in  Gottingen  in  1784, 
by  L.  6r.  Wageman,  a*  clergyman,  who  was  deeply 
attached  to  the  cause  of  increasing  the  general 
usefulness  of  mankind.  Following  the  example 
of  the  work  of  this  institution,  many  others  of  a 
similar  nature  were  founded  at  the  end  of  the  last 
and  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 

Heppe,  in  his  "  Geschichte  des  Deutschen  Volk- 
schulwesens  "  ("  History  of  the  Condition  of  the 
German  Public  Schools"),  talks  much  about  their 
organization  and  growth.  He  states  that  such 
schools  were  established  in  Lippe-Detmold,  1788; 
Wurzburg,  1789;  Hanover,  1790;  Braunschweig, 
1792;  Wurtemburg,  1795;  Prussia,  1798;  Gotha, 
1798;  Baden,  1803;  Bavaria,  1804;  Hesse,  1808. 
These  "  Industrieschulen  "  (Industrial  Schools) 
were  intended  exclusively  for  the  poorer  classes, 
and  their  aim  was  to  instil  the  love  for  work  as 
a  human  duty. 

Arnold  Wageman,  a  brother  of  the  clergyman 
of  Gottingen,  published  in  1791  a  book  entitled 
"  Uber  die  Bildung  des  Volks  zur  Industrie " 
("  On  the  Education  of  the  Masses  for  Industrial 
Pursuits "),  wherein  the  word  "Industrie"  is  de- 


60  THE  HISTORY  OP  MANUAL   TRAINING 

fined  as  "  an  employment  of  time  and  energy  to 
the  best  ends,  conforming  to  the  laws  of  econ- 
omy." He  speaks  of  the  aim  of  the  industrial 
schools,  as  follows  : 

"  We  cannot  expect  any  *good  influence  from 
the  home  training,  unless  in  the  home  can  be 
found  persons  who  perfectly  understand  the  rela- 
tion of  education  to  '  Industrie. '  Therefore  this 
work  must  at  present  be  carried  on  in  the 
schools.  It  is  there  that  from  an  early  age  the 
child  should  be  trained  in  such  occupations  as 
will  exercise  and  develop  those  forces  which  can 
and  will  later  on  be  usefully  applied.  Up  to  the 
present  time  we  have  not  done  so.  We  have 
occupied  the  child's  mind  with  subjects  which  arc 
of  no  real  importance  to  him,  and  upon  which 
his  attention  has  remained  only  as  long  as  there 
were  external  means  at  work,  such  as  either  his 
love  for  the  teacher  or  his  fear  of  punish- 
ment. How  can  such  compulsory  activity  be 
useful  to  the  mind? 

"  I  am  bold  enough  to  say  that  it  is  wrong  to 
begin  school  work  with  direct  instruction  in 
subjects  that  are  purely  mental,  and  amount  to 
nothing  more  than  memory  lessons,  since  the 
fthijr[_hjffl  had^  no  experience,  and  it  is  only  ex- 
perience that  can  give  interest  to  the  study  of 


DEVELOPMENT  Off  MANUAL   THAIN1NG  61 

abstract  subjects.  It  would  certainly  be  better  to 
follow  the  hints  offered  by  Nature,  who  allows 
the  growth  of  the  body  in  early  childhood  to 
supersede  that  of  the  mind.  We  should,  there- 
fore, put  a  greater  demand  upon  the  more 
rapidly  growing  corporal  forces  than  upon  the 
brain  with  its  slower  development.  . 

11  The  youthful  strength  has  been  stunted  rather 
than  invigorated.  What  child  can  understand 
the  necessity  of  all  this  uncomfortable  sitting 
still  and  all  these  memory  lessons?  The  child 
must  have  an  aim  in  his  work,  an  aim  very  near 
to  his  heart,  if  we  wish  him  to  achieve  the 
desired  result.  How  often  does  it  happen  that 
the  real  pleasure  the  child  experiences  when 
leaving  the  school  exists  in  aught  else  than  the 
consciousness  of  being  finally  able  to  give  vent  to 
forces  that  have  been  held  in  check? 

"We  need  only,  unobserved  by  the  children, 
watch  them  at  their  occupations  after  school 
hours.  Wo  will  soon  see  how  we  ought  to  busy 
them  in  the  class-room,  in  order  to  make  their 
school  life  both  agreeable  and  useful. 

"  The  boys  will  be  found  at  the  brooks,  build- 
ing dams  and  water-wheels,  making  grottos,  con- 
structing cottages,  or  possibly  carrying  wood  and 
other  material  on  little  wagons.  Some  choose 


C2  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL    TRAINING 

more  difficult,  others  more  easy  tasks,  depending 
upon  their  natural  boldness. 

"  The  girls  play  with  dolls,  though  these  may 
be  made  of  nothing  but  leaves  and  moss,  and 
they  often  imitate  housekeeping  in  their  games. 

"  All  want  activity,  and  thus  they  compensate 
themselves  for  the  sitting  still  in  the  school- 
room. Can  these  facts  not  teach  us  how  we 
ought  to  occupy  our  little  ones?  Rapidly  they 
go  from  one  pastime  to  another ;  perseverance 
is  not  their  forte,  and  still  we  are  to  make 
steady  workmen  out  of  them.  Do  we  employ 
the  right  means,  when  we  keep  them  for  six 
hours  a  day  at  their  desks  ?  " 

Wageman  gives  us  a  concise  rule  as  a  guide 
in  teaching  manual  work.  He  says:  "  As  a  most 
elementary  principle,  we  must  follow  Nature's 
way,  and  choose  at  the  beginning  such  work  as 
shall  require  both  little  mental  and  physical 
labor,  so  that  the  results  may  be  quickly  attained. 
The  instruction  must  be  thorough,  and  the  atten- 
tion must  be  closely  riveted,  and  only  at  the 
outset  should  poor  or  faulty  work  be  tolerated." 

Dr.  I.  G.  Krunitz,  a  contemporary  of  Wageman, 
has  treated  this  subject  more  at  length  in  his 
work  "  Die  Landschulcn  so  wohl  wie  Lehr  als 
auch  Arbeits  oder  Industrie  Schulen  Bctrachtet " 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  63 

("  The  Country  Schools  Viewed  as  Instruction 
and  Manual  or  Industrial  Schools").  This  work 
was  published  in  1794,  and  by  a  royal  mandate 
was  ordered  to  be  bought  by  every  parish  in 
Prussia. 

He  says :  "  The  time  devoted  to  book  studies 
might  be  much  decreased  if  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical work  were  combined  ;  and,  since  we  have 
arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  more  will  be 
learned  in  this  way,  one  might  say  that  the 
half  has  become  greater  than  the  whole.  Book 
work  alone  is  very  unproductive  of  good  re- 
sults, as  is  proven  by  the  fact  that  our  country 
boys,  after  spending  six  hours  per  day  at  school 
during  a  period  of  from  six  to  eight  years,  are 
in  most  cases  ignorant,  rough,  and  illiterate." 

This  book  contains  many  practical  sugges- 
tions concerning  the  arrangement  of  manual 
instruction,  as  well  as  accounts  of  the  public 
schools  in  which  manual  training  has  been  intro- 
duced. 

At  this  time  a  similar  movement  was  going  on 
in  France,  The  great  revolution  against  all  the 
old  customs  had  just  begun.  In  the  words  of 
Mirabeau,  "  pour  tout  reconstruire  ete  force  de  tout 
demolir"  ("in  order  to  reconstruct  everything, 
everything  must  ftrst  be  destroyed").  The  signs 


64  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

of  the  early  period  gave  promise  of  an  entire 
change  in  the  form  of  public  instruction,  and  a 
well-arranged  plan  embodying  the  new  ideas  on 
manual  work  was  adopted. 

In  a  comprehensive  and  interesting  book  en- 
titled "  L'instruction  Public  en  France  Pen- 
dant la  Revolution,"  published  in  Paris  in  1881, 
Hippeau  says :  "  All  principles  of  education  and 
all  systems  of  instruction  have  been  studied 
and  developed  from  the  point  of  view  of  a 
government  which  through  the  grace  of  God  has 
been  founded  from  the  ruins  of  a  kingdom,  by 
the  national  will.  Our  education  should  have, 
as  its  starting  point,  a  respect  for  the  rights  of 
man,  and  should  be  arranged  to  suit  the  needs 
and  demands  of  a  people  who  but  a  short  time 
ago  acquired  their  liberty." 

The  National  Assembly  now  exhibited  a  pecul- 
iar drama.  At  the  same  time  that  it  crushed 
out  all  that  seemed  to  stand  as  an  obstacle  in  the 
way  of  the  new  order  of  things,  executing  thereby 
the  most  terrible  and  bloodthirsty  acts,  it  inter- 
ested itself  in  the  study  of  all  matters  pertaining 
to  the  education  of  the  masses,  with  a  calmness 
and  judgment  most  astonishing  in  its  strong  con- 
trast to  the  perpetration  of  its  dreadful  deeds. 

In  1793,  the  year  that  witnessed  the  falling  of 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  65 

the  heads  of  the  king  and  queen  before  the 
guillotine,  when  terrorism  raged  at  its  highest, 
the  convention  worked  with  great  eagerness  to 
establish  throughout  the  excited  republic  new 
schools  embodying  the  new  ideas.  At  no  time 
before  or  since  have  these  questions  played  so 
prominent  a  part  in  public  debate,  and  caused  so 
much  general  discussion,  as  during  these  event- 
ful times. 

Hippeau  further  says :  "  To  the  time  of  the 
convention  can  be  traced  the  origin  of  the  idea 
of  introducing  manual  work  in  the  elementary 
schools." 

On  the  13th  of  July,  1793,  Robexpierre  laid 
before  the  National  Assembly  a  plan  of  educa- 
tion which  was  to  be  followed  throughout  the 
republic.  This  plan  had  been  drawn  up  by 
Michael  le  Peletier,  a  member  of  the  Assembly, 
who  was  murdered  in  January  of  the  same  year. 
Robespierre  was  its  warmest  advocate. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  this  plan  : 
"  Public  education,  besides  giving  strength  and 
health,  must  instil  the  duty  of  the  habit  of 
work,  because  this  is  to  all  both  a  necessity  and 
an  advantage.  I  do  not  refer  to  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  any  particular  kind  of  work,  but 
rather  to  that  energy,  that  activity,  that  indus- 


66  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

triousness,  and  that  perseverance  to  the  end, 
which  characterize  the  life  of  every  diligent 
individual.  Educate  such  men,  and  the  republic 
will  see  its  fruits  of  agriculture  and  of  industry 
redoubled.  Instil  in  the  child  this  need,  this 
habit  of  work,  and  his  future  existence  is  se- 
cured, as  he  will  then  be  entirely  dependent 
upon  himself.  I  consider  this  part  of  education 
as  the  most  important,  and  therefore  my  plan  of 
general  instruction  contains  manual  labor  as  its 
vital  feature.  Of  all  the  sources  which  are  apt 
to  stimulate  the  average  child,  none  will  pro- 
duce a  greater  desire  for  activity  than  physical 
work. 

"  By  this  bill  which  I  lay  before  you,  I  hope  to 
interest  fathers,  teachers,  and  pupils.  Fathers, 
because  their  taxes  will  be  decreased;  teachers, 
because  they  may  hope  for  honor  and  recom- 
pense in  this  new  field  ;  and  children,  because  the 
accomplishment  of  some  real,  material  work  will 
always  be  to  them  a  source  of  great  delight. 
I  would  desire  that  various  kinds  of  handicraft 
work  might  be  introduced." 

In  spite  of  Robespierre's  efforts,  this  question 
remained  for  almost  a  century  at  a  stand-still,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  era  of  the  third  republic 
that  the  ideas  of  the  first  were  carried  into  execu- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  67 

tion.  Let  us  return  for  a  moment  to  the  progress 
in  Germany. 

A.  H.  Niemeyer  (1754-1828),  rector  of  the 
University  of  Halle,  and  director  of  the  institu- 
tions founded  by  Francke,  in  his  well-known 
work,  "  Die  Grundsatze  der  Erziehung  und  des 
Unterrichtes  "  ("  The  Principles  of  Education  and 
Instruction "),  says  :  "  The  more  incessantly  we 
employ  the  children,  the  more  we  can  shield 
them  from  evil  habits,  and  create  in  them  a 
desire  for  the  good.-  Children  for  whom  other- 
wise there  seemed  no  hope,  needed  but  very 
little  correction  as  soon  as  a  means  for  keeping 
them  actively  employed  was  found.  To  dis- 
cover an  occupation  suitable  to  each  stage  of 
development,  is  without  doubt  the  important 
work  of  every  educational  system.  We  should 
therefore  give  the  children  an  opportunity  to  be- 
come mentally  and  physically  active,  and  should 
not  tax  them  beyond  their  natural  forces.  Man- 
ual work  strengthens  the  body,  and  frees  the  home 
life  from  dullness  and  ennui. 

"  Of  the  many  kinds  of  physical  labor,  the 
carpent/ry  may  be  considered  as  the  most  suitable 
handicraft  for  the  young,  on  account  of  the  many 
works  that  can  be  accomplished  in  it,  and  also  on 
account  of  the  great  variety  of  tools  employed. 


08  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING 

Carpentry  is  not  beyond  the  natural  powers  of  the 
child.  Turnery  exercises  the  senses  and  creates 
an  artistic  faculty.  It  is  well  to  teach  the  child 
how  to  handle  such  tools  as  are  used  in  the  home, 
as  the  saw,  the  hammer,  the  ax,  the  auger,  etc. 
Neglecting  this,  we  are  really  making  our  children 
helpless,  since  they  will  be  unable  to  use  the  com- 
mon tools  without  hurting  themselves." 

In  1797  a  pamphlet  appeared  entitled,  "  Uber 
die  Beniitzung  des  bei  Kindern  so  thatigen 
Triebes,  beschaftigt  zu  sein  "  ("  How  to  Make  Use 
of  the  Child's  Active  Impulse  to  be  Occupied"). 
The  author,  J.  H.  G.  Ileusinger  (1766-1837),  doc- 
tor of  philosophy  and  pedagogy  at  the  University 
of  Jena,  is,  generally  speaking,  to  be  regarded  as 
the  predecessor  of  Froebel,  as  he  begins  with  very 
nearly  the  same  principles,  and  arrives  at  similar 
conclusions. 

Rissmann  says  :  "  Heusinger's  works  were  very 
carefully  studied  by  Froebel.  His  books  owned 
by  Froebel  were  all  marked  with  many  mar- 
ginal notes.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  this  does 
not  in  any  way  detract  from  the  practical  value 
of  FroebePs  pedagogy."  Much  stress  is  laid 
upon  the  development  of  the  sense  of  beauty,  for 
which  reason  Heusinger  believes  that  modeling 
should  form  a  part  of  the  school  work, 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL    TRAINING  69 

The  following  is  a  short  extract  from  his  re- 
markable writings  :  "  From  the  sixth  year  on,  the 
children  are  taught  from  books.  Is  it  at  all  sur- 
prising that  they  think  it  is  from  books  alone  that 
knowledge  is  to  be  obtained?  A  bright *child  has 
therefore  no  other  desire  than  to  get  books  and 
to  study  out  of  them.  The  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge by  his  own  observation,  by  his  own  efforts, 
is  something  that  our  present  education  does  not 
teach  him.  This  is  left  for  after  school  hours, 
because  it  is  still  believed  that  the  teaching  of 
facts  should  be  the  main  feature  of  all  educational 
systems." 

Heusinger  shows  us  in  his  book  "  Die  Familie 
Wertheim  "  ("The  Family  Wertheim  "),  how  his 
principles  are  best  to  be  applied.  He  shows  that 
the  instruction  must  be  founded  upon  experi- 
ences gathered  by  those  who  are  closely  watch- 
ing the  school  work.  He  thinks  that  manual 
work  should  be  a  principal  means  of  education, 
as  it  satisfies  the  child's  natural  desire  for  creat- 
ing and  imitating. 

Regarding  the  choice  of  occupation,  he  believes 

—first,    that   the    occupation     should    correspond 

with  the  physical  forces ;  secondly,  that  the  work 

should    not   impair    the   child's   health ;    thirdly, 

that  it  should  be  executed  both  while  sitting  and 


70  TUE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL    TRAINING 

standing,  thus  giving  opportunity  to  frequently 
change  the  position  of  the  body  ;  fourthly,  that 
the  work  should  not  only  be  the  means  of  mak- 
ing the  future  apprenticeship  to  the  trades  easier, 
but  should  be  of  general  use  in  any  vocation ; 
fifthly,  that  materials  should  be  chosen  from 
which  many  different  objects  can  be  made ; 
sixthly,  that  the  main  stress  should  be  laid  upon 
the  connection  between  the  practical  work  and 
the  acquisition  of  true  knowledge ;  and,  finally, 
that  the  work  should  develop  the  sense  of  form 
arid  beauty.  To  accomplish  all  this,  Heusinger 
proposes  pasteboard,  bone,  wax,  metal,  and  wood 
work. 

Emanuel  von  Fellenberg  (1771-1844),  founder  of 
Hofwyl,  as  he  liked  to  call  himself,  partly  col- 
laborating with  Pestalozzi,  strove  to  develop  a 
national  system  of  education.  Hofwyl  was  an 
estate  situated  several  miles  north  of  Bern,  Switz- 
erland. Fellenberg  bought  this  in  1799,  and 
turned  it  into  a  colony  which  to-day  might  serve 
as  a  model  for  agricultural  and  industrial  work. 
Among  all  the  institutions  founded  there,  the 
well-known  "  Poor  School  "  was  his  favorite.  The 
motto  of  the  school  was  "  Pray  and  Work,"  and 
.he  told  his  pupils  again  and  again  that  truly 
industrious  men  not  only  produce  more  than 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL    TRAINING  71 

dull,  mechanical  workers,  but  are  really  able  to 
do  the  state  a  greater  and  higher  service. 

In  this  school  the  pupils  were  principally  oc- 
cupied in  the  fields,  in. the  woods,  in  housework, 
and  in  the  shops.  As  a  recreation,  instruction 
was  given  in  theoretical  studies.  One  who  wit- 
nessed what  was  done  here  says :  "  The  instruc- 
tion given  was  indeed  refreshing.  The  boys  would 
come  from  an  arduous  task,  and  would  return  to 
it  with  renewed  energy  and  readiness.  I  can  only 
explain  this  on  the  ground  that  they  were  spurred 
on  by  the  existence  of  an  inner  mental  joy." 

Hero  are  Fellenbcrg's  words  :  "  Philanthropists, 
come  and  rejoice  with  me  in  the  blessed  expe- 
rience of  the  fact  that  the  necessity  of  earning 
one's  own  bread  can  be  productive  of  better  re- 
sults than  the  dwarfing  of  mental  and  corporal 
forces,  and  that  physical  exertion  under  correct 
guidance  may  be  of  great  and  lasting  benefit  to 
both  mind  and  body."  In  his  school  for  boys 
of  the  higher  classes,  in  which,  during  a  period 
of  some  ten  years,  the  sons  of  the  most  renowned 
families  of  Europe,  and  even  princes  of  the 
reigning  houses,  were  pupils,  manual  instruction 
was  given  in  wood  and  pasteboard  work. 

Joliann  Jacob  Welirli  (1790-1855)  was  for  many 
years  the  director  of  the  poor  school  at  Hofwyl. 


72  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL    TRAINING 

Though  a  plain  and  simple  man,  who  never  had 
the  advantage  of  a  higher  education,  he  never- 
theless possessed  just  those  qualities  which  emi- 
nently fitted  him  to  be  a  teacher  of  the  poor. 
He  followed  Pestalozzi's  method  of  instruction, 
placing  all  matters  before  the  children  in  the 
most  intelligible  and  practical  light. 

The  education  for  work  being  the  chief  aim 
of  the  school,  little  time  was  devoted  to  the 
usual  studies.  Wehrli  gave  much  chance  in- 
struction. When  at  work,  he  told  many  instruc- 
tive tales,  and  sometimes  he  would  even  require 
the  children  to  solve  problems  in  arithmetic;  and 
at  the  same  time,  in  the  most  natural  way,  he 
would  tell  them  facts  connected  with  the  prac- 
tical work  which  they  had  in  hand. 

Through  his  efforts,  the  scholars  learned  to 
work  in  a  thoughtful  manner.  He  loved  his 
pupils  as  a  father,  and  nursed  them  as  a  mother. 
In  later  years,  many  schools  with  his  method 
were  founded  throughout  Germany,  and  such 
have  been  called  "  Wehrli  schools." 

Berrihcvrd  Heinrich  Slasche  was  to  Sal zm ami 
what  Wehrli  was  to  Fellenberg ;  namely,  a  highly 
esteemed  contemporary.  Blasche  superintended 
the  so-called  "  mechanical  work."  A  man  of 
much  experience  as  a  teacher,  he  has  expressed 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL    THAINING  73 

the  value  of  manual  labor  as  an  educational  in- 
fluence in  his  numerous  writings,  the  best  known 
of  which,  "  Die  Werstatte  der  Kinder,"  is  an  ex- 
tensive and  interesting  work  in  four  volumes. 
His  views,  like  Rousseau's,  are  that  manual 
training  should  be  taught  as  a  basis  for  intel- 
lectual improvement. 

J.  G.  Fichte  (1762-1814),  in  his  well-known 
speeches  to  the  German  nation,  points  out  the 
importance  of  incorporating  manual  training  into 
the  national  educational  system,  and  says  that  it  is 
the  only  means  for  the  fatherland's  regeneration. 
"  My  chief  request  is  that  theoretical  instruction 
and  practical  labor  be  combined,  so  that  each 
school  will  appear  self-supporting  to  its  scholars, 
thereby  creating  a  desire  in  each  pupil  to  con- 
tribute his  share  of  work  in  accordance  with  his 
capabilities. 

"  Without  touching  upon  the  feasibility  or  the 
economical  practicability  of  such  a  method  of 
instruction — questions  which  rightfully  belong  to 
our  proposition — my  request  arises  as  a  direct  re- 
sult of  the  aim  of  true  education,  partly  because 
the  majority  of  those  who  are  instructed  under 
the  national  educational  system  belong  to  the 
workingmen's  classes,  whose  early  training  should 
without  doubt  be  in  the  line  of  technical  work, 


?4  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

and  more  especially  because  there  will  arise  in 
the  young  a  consciousness  of  being  able  to  shift 
for  themselves,  and  a  reluctance  to  rely  upon  the 
munificence  of  others. 

"  This  is  surely  the  sole  condition  of  each  man's 
self-respect.  If  we  were  to  investigate  the  careers 
of  those  who  have  led  a  bad  or  demoralized  life, 
we  should  always  find  that  they  would  neither 
learn  to  work,  nor  to  understand  the  true  habit 
of  economy. 

"  Our  idea  is  to  teach  the  young  how  to  work, 
so  that  in  the  future  they  will  not  be  tempted  to 
commit  crime  in  order  to  satisfy  the  mere  needs 
of  existence.  We  would  in  no  case  except  those 
who  intend  to  follow  a  learned  career  from  this 
kind  of  work." 

Scfwndler,  a  prominent  Swiss  statesman,  in  1854 
gave  to  the  public  the  following  prize  question  : 
"  How  shall  the  instruction  in  our  elementary 
schools  be  freed  from  its  present  abstract  method, 
and  be  made  more  conducive  to  true  mental 
development  ? "  This  question  was  the  cause  of 
many  competitive  writings,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  essays  from  the  most  prominent  peda- 
gogues of  the  day. 

The  newspapers  discussed  the  matter,  and  held 
it  in  its  true  light  before  the  eyes  of  the  public. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  75 

The  pedagogical  value  of  manual  education 
was  at  once  suggested. 

Among  the  valuable  answers,  two  deserve 
special  mention ;  viz.,  "  Die  Arbeits-schulen  der 
Land-gemeinden  in  ihren  voll-berechtigten  zu- 
sammenwirken  mit  der  Lehrschulen "  ("  The 
Working  Schools  of  the  Parishes  in  their  True 
Relation  to  the  Elementary  Schools")  by  Dr. 
Conrad  Michelson,  and  "Die  Erziehung  zur  Ar- 
beit, eine  Forderung  des  Lebens  an  die  Schule  " 
(kl  The  Education  to  Work,  a  Demand  which 
Life  makes  of  the  School")  by  Karl  Friedrich. 
We  give  a  few  extracts  from  these  works. 

Proceeding  from  Fichte's  statement  that  the 
public  education  was  the  important  problem  of 
the  period,  Michelson  tried  to  prove  that  the  so- 
lution could  be  more  easily  reached  by  connect- 
ing the  elementary  schools,  which  at  that  time 
were  simply  reading  schools,  with  the  so-called 
working  schools.  The  author  speaks  of  those 
founded  in  1796,  by  Duke  Peter  of  Oldenlmrg,  in 
Holstein.  This  warm-hearted  nobleman,  feeling 
that  he  had  not  done  sufficient  by  simply  grant- 
ing freedom  to  his  serfs,  and  knowing  "  that  he 
who  is  free  must  understand  how  to  use  his 
liberty,  how  to  busy  the  mind,  and  employ  the 
hands,"  established  manual  schools  in  which 


76  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

spinning,  sewing,  and  weaving  were  taught  to 
girls,  wood- work  to  boys,  and  gardening  to  both. 

Dr.  Conrad  Michehon,  who  had  made  a  close 
study  of  these  schools,  says :  "  I  spent  much  time 
talking  to  men  and  women  who  had  been  edu- 
cated there;  I  found  that  though  many  had  for- 
gotten the  most  of  that  which  had  been  taught 
in  the  reading  schools,  the  working  school  was 
still  living  in  their  grateful  recollections,  and 
they  all,  without  exception,  acknowledged  the 
valuable  habits  they  had  acquired  there." 

In  another  chapter  he  says  :  "  When  it  is  nec- 
essary to  fight  against  a  deeply  rooted  disease,  the 
facts  of  the  case  must  be  taken  as  they  are,  and 
not  as  one  would  like  them  to  be.  I  could  tell 
you  many  curious  facts  about  these  families. 

"I  recall  one  instance  of  a  father  who  had  been 
an  habitual  drunkard,  and  who  worked  only 
when  urgent  necessity  drove  him  to  it.  His  son 
had  joined  one  of  these  working  schools,  and 
busied  himself  evenings  by  doing  some  little 
manual  work.  One  evening  the  father  became 
interested  in  the  son's  work,  and  it  was  not  a 
long  time  after  this  that  he  was  encouraged  to 
take  a  hand  in  it.  He  has  since  become  thrifty 
and  useful.  I  know  of  another  case,  where, 
through  the  influence  of  a  daughter,  the  good 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  77 

taught  in  the  school  was  reflected  as  a  blessing 
in  the  house. 

"  To  you  who  believe  only  in  figures,  I  can  show 
by  figures  that  a  large  part  of  the  expenses  which 
working  schools  will  entail  would  in  reality  be 
saved  out  of  the  funds  which  are  now  expended 
on  the  poor-house." 

According  to  Michelson,  all  articles  of  luxury 
should  be  excluded  from  the  manual  work,  for 
the  same  reason  that  all  abstract  subjects  should 
be  omitted  from  the  book  studies.  His  motto  is, 
"  Erziehen,  nicht  Verziehen  "  ("  Guidance,  not  Mis- 
guidance ").  It  is  not  models  we  want,  but  the 
habit  to  work.  Referring  to  the  models,  he  says  : 
"  On  this  rock  many  a  manual  training  school 
has  been  wrecked."  The  kind  of  work  must  be 
arranged  in  accordance  with  the  sphere  in  which 
the  pupils  live,  so  that  they  may  in  a  measure  be- 
come prepared  for  their  future  occupations.  The 
country  boys  should  be  instructed  in  Klutern  * 
(manual  training  in  wood-work)  and  in  plaiting. 

*  The  expression  Kliitern,  taken  from  the  Holstein  dialect, 
corresponds  to  the  Swedish  Trdsloyd  (wood-sloyd).  Ac- 
cording to  Michelson,  Kliitern  signifies  all  kinds  of  wood- 
work, both  for  home  and  field  industry,  such  work  as  does 
not  apply  to  any  particular  trade.  Duke  Peter's  statement, 
that  the  aim  of  the  country  working  school  should  be  to 
produce  various  objects  in  wood  for  the  home,  the  stable, 
the  barn,  and  the  field,  expressed  the  same  idea. 


78  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL    TRAINING 

Karl  Friedrictis  "  Erziehung  zur  Arbeit " 
("  Education  to  Work  "),  written  with  much  care 
and  in  a  clear,  persuasive  tone,  is  a  work  of  great 
merit  which  exerted  a  wide  influence.  It  has 
attracted  considerable  attention,  and  is  still  used 
as  a  book  of  reference.  Those  who  in  the 
main  sympathize  with  this  author  will  find  him 
at  times  dealing  in  exaggerations,  and  again 
wandering  in  idealistic  dreamland 

In  the  first  four  chapters,  to  which  is  prefixed 
the  "  Konnen  ist  besser  denn  Wissen  "  ("  To  be  Able 
is  better  than  to  Know  "),  Friedrich  explains  what 
seem  to  him  to  be  the  faults  that  underlie  the 
elementary  school  system.  He  says :  "  Some  of 
the  subjects  are  not  proportionately  valuable  to 
the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  them ;  what  is 
learned  is  very  soon  forgotten."  The  following 
quotations  furnish  a  good  illustration  of  Karl 
Friedrich's  opinions  : 

"  In  1882  a  committee  on  instruction  in  Bel- 
gium examined  8,917  young  soldiers.  Of  this 
number,  7,861  had  attended  either  a  public  or  a 
private  elementary  school.  The  following  results 
were  obtained :  Of  2,347  young  men  who  could 
not  write,  1,877  had  taken  a  primary  school 
education.  Of  6,480  who  could  write,  1,476  could 
not  add  the  figures  492,  102,  18;  3,120  did  not 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  79 

know  how  many  meters  there  are  in  one  kilo- 
meter ;  684  did  not  know  in  which  country  Lon- 
don is  situated ;  and  4,047  did  not  know  whether 
Moses  lived  before  or  after  Christ. 

"  Purely  mental  exertion  impedes  healthy 
bodily  development.  In  a  certain  community 
in  Saxony,  out  of  1,604  young  men  who  were 
to  be  enrolled  in  the  military  service,  902  were 
found  physically  incapable,  176  partially  inca- 
pable, and  199  beneath  the  required  stature.  In 
a  certain  part  of  Prussia,  among  17,246  young 
men,  who  on  account  of  having  passed  special 
examinations  were  only  to  serve  for  one  year  in 
the  army,  80^  were  found  physically  incapable. 

"  In  the  work  of  the  public  school,  a  great  dis- 
proportion exists  between  the  teaching  force  and 
the  number  of  pupils,  and  therefore  it  becomes 
impossible  for  the  most  zealous  teacher  to  occupy 
all  the  children  under  his  care,  and  to  keep 
proper  discipline.  He  is  sure  to  be'  overworked 
and  physically  enfeebled. 

"  The  continuous  still  sitting,  and  the  teaching 
of  subjects  which  neither  attract  nor  hold  the 
child's  attention,  are  the  reasons  why  no  real 
desire  for  knowledge  is  engendered ;  and  when 
the  children  work  with  eagerness  and  apparent 
pleasure,  it  is  generally  due  to  other  means  than 


80  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

an  interest  in  the  subject  itself.  The  present 
instruction  neither  corresponds  with  what  the 
true  aim  of  the  public  school  should  be,  nor 
with  the  laws  that  directly  relate  to  the  nature 
of  the  child. 

"  The  cause  of  these  sad  truths  may  be  found 
in  the  fact  that  the  school  has  been  changed 
from  an  institution  which  should  be  a  means  to 
an  end,  into  one  that  has  concentrated  its  entire 
aim  within  itself.  Instead  of  at  every  stage 
adapting  its  instruction  to  the  requirements  of 
the  after-school  period,  it  dogmatically  follows 
out  its  own  ideas  regarding  the  subjects  to  be 
taught,  and  the  degree  of  perfection  to  which 
each  study  is  to  be  carried.  What  is  the  result? 
We  force  our  children  to  abide  by  a  system 
which  is  opposed  to  their  natural  desires,  since 
they  prefer  the  golden  fruits  of  life  to  grave  and 
ponderous  theories. 

"  By  making  the  instruction  more  practical 
than  it  has  hitherto  been,  we  can  best  effect  a 
true  preparation.  So  long  as  the  school  teaches 
only  theoretical  subjects,  it  will  continue  to  be- 
come more  and  more  proud  of  these,  and  will 
instil  an  air  of  superiority  toward  the  home  and 
the  life  outside  of  the  school.  A  purely  prac- 
tical element  would  furnish  reactionary  means. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  81 

This  tendency  to  do  practical  and  physical  work 
is  a  demand  of  human  nature,  especially  visible 
in  the  young,  since  they  not  only  require  a  har- 
monious development,  but  also  can  have  their 
desire  for  activity  best  satisfied  in  this  way. 

"  The  advantage  of  a  practical  discipline  can 
be  explained  by  stating  that  the  method  must 
proceed  from  the  simplest  and  most  convenient 
to  the '  more  difficult  and  involved  exercises  of 
the  powers ;  thus  being  opposed  to  the  theoretical 
method,  which  usually  proceeds  from  compli- 
cated abstractions,  which  of  necessity  strain  and 
confuse  the  pupils. 

"  Since  practical  work  is  consistent  with  the 
nature  of  the  youth,  there  is  no  particular  need 
of  awakening  an  interest  by  artificial  or  com- 
pulsory means.  Pedagogy  itself  will  accomplish 
through  practical  instruction  that  which  it  con- 
ceives as  its  first  duty ;  namely,  it  will  secure 
by  investigation  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  true 
characteristics  of  its  pupils. 

"  Individuality  presupposes  a  distinct  self- 
activity,  and  can  never  be  the  result  of  recep- 
tivity alone.  Every  teacher  has  known  boys 
who  were  remarkable  for  their  dullness  while 
at  school,  and  who,  when  put  in  other  sur- 
roundings, became  active  and  useful,  while  some 


82  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

of  the  so-called  excellent  pupils  grew  to  be 
lazy  and  unprincipled  men. 

"  When  we  think  of  the  sickness  and  deformity 
caused  by  the  leaning  positions  assumed  by  both 
teacher  and  pupils,  it  requires  no  argument  to 
convince  us  of  the  advantages  to  health  and 
physical  development  to  be  gained  from  the 
practical  work. 

"  The  greatest  advantage  of  manual  work  is 
its  influence  on  the  character  and  moral  nature, 
which  renders  it  as  much  a  feature  of  education 
as  of  instruction.  Competition  in  this  work 
takes  a  more  natural  and  less  dangerous  turn, 
for  the  reason  that  an  ambition  which  seeks  to 
do  a  work  more  correctly  is  surely  more  nat- 
ural and  less  dangerous  than  one  which  aims 
at  simply  'being  considered  to  have  done  some- 
thing better. 

"  The  fact  that  the  practical  instruction  has  a 
direct  bearing  upon  the  home  and  the  family 
life  is  of  a  great  pedagogical  value,  because  less 
educated  parents  are  able  to  take  an  interest  in 
the  progress  of  their  children,  as  this  work 
comes  more  within  the  capacity  of  their  judg- 
ment." 

Having  spoken  about  the  previous  attempts 
made,  and  having  explained  some  of  the  reasons 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  83 

why  such  attempts  proved  unsuccessful,  the 
author  tries  to  show  a  possibility  of  the  realiza- 
tion of  his  ideas. 

His  book  ends  thus :  "  Whatever  be  the 
destiny  of  these  contemplations,  whether  they 
are  going  to  have  some  direct  result  or  not, 
the  author  thinks  that  he  has  paid  a  debt  to 
his  fatherland,  and  to  the  youth  growing  up 
to  manhood,  by  openly  declaring  what  to 
him  seems  to  be  the  real  defect  in  the  present 
educational  system.  He  does  not  claim  any 
originality  for  his  proposition,  but  it  has  the 
advantage  of  being  the  expression  of  a  thought, 
which  perhaps  for  a  long  time  has  been  in  the 
minds  of  many  fathers  and  many  teachers." 

"  Die  Erziehung  zur  Arbeit"  came  out  in 
1852.  Thirty-one  years  later  it  appeared  in 
another  edition,  completely  revised  by  the 
author.  Instead  of  the  nom  de  plume  Karl 
Friedricli,  we  find  on  the  title-page  the  name 
of  Prof.  Karl  Biederman,  a  prominent  writer  on 
political  science.  Professor  Biederman  took  an 
active  part  in  the  political  strife  of  1848.  In 
this  second  edition,  the  Swedish  Sloyd  is  men- 
tioned in  a  most  flattering  way. 

In  the  middle  of  this  century,  while  through- 
out Germany  a  great  deal  of  activity  was  mani- 


84  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

fested  in  pedagogical  circles — a  period  marked 
by  numerous  writings  on  the  manual  training 
question — Torsten  Rudeuschold  (1798-1859),  the 
self-made  schoolman  as  he  has  been  called, 
worked  with  unremitting  zeal  to  reform  the 
Swedish  public  school  system. 

It  is  not  so  much  because  of  what  he  said  or 
wrote,  but  rather  for  what  he  did,  and  for  the 
example  he  furnished  to  others,  that  many  of 
those  who  have  worked  in  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion will  remember  him  with  a  feeling  of  love 
and  esteem,  as  a  man  whose  warm  heart  told 
him  what  the  people  needed,  and  whose  gifts 
as  a  true  educator  enabled  him  to  scatter  the 
seeds  for  future  harvests. 

To  the  advocates  of  the  Swedish  Sloyd  in- 
struction system,  it  will  be  pleasant  to  recollect 
that  Rudenschold  did  not  overlook  the  impor- 
tance of  educational  manual  training. 

In  a  little  pamphlet  which  appeared  in  1856 
entitled,  "  The  Practical  Arrangement  of  the 
Swedish  Public  School,"  he  says :  "  It  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  universally  acknowledged, 
that  in  the  elementary  school  the  children  are 
overburdened  with  continual  reading  lessons, 
which  they  have  not  had  sufficient  time  to 
digest,  and  the  result  of  which  is  a  valueless 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  85 

memory  knowledge.  That  the  mind  and  the 
body  are  to  be  developed  at  the  same  time,  is 
gradually  coming  to  be  more  and  more  under- 
stood. Gymnastics  is  too  much  of  a  health 
remedy  to  awaken  either  a  sufficient  pleasure  or 
interest  for  its  own  sake. 

"  To  devote  too  much  time  to  corporal  work 
cannot  be  advantageous,  as  we  do  not  propose 
to  make  either  mechanics  or  physical  workers 
of  all  our  children ;  yet  no  one  can  tell  the 
future  of  his  child.  In  real  life,  everything 
rests  upon  an  uncertain  and  ever  changing  basis. 
In  the  mercantile  world,  '  all  is  not  gold  that 
glitters.' 

"  The  system  of  credits,  when  closely  examined 
into,  may  be  likened  to  a  tremendous  sphere 
resting  upon  a  volcano.  The  pupils  who  are 
fond  of  speculation  are  walking  upon  it.  The 
eruption  suddenly  comes.  It  then  happens  that 
the  young  men  of  the  better  classes  are  left 
without  a  means  of  self-support. 

"Children  of  the  best  families,  no  matter  how 
high  their  social  position  may  be,  will  receive 
much  benefit  from  an  early  training  in  physical 
work,  as  we  constantly  hear  the  complaint  that 
they  are  too  weak,  and  seek  only  the  pleasures 
of  life  and  its  expensive  diversions.  They  will 


86  TEE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING 

then  learn  for  themselves  that  in  corporal  work 
there  is  more  true  satisfaction,  and  will  prefer 
it  as  a  refreshing  pastime. 

"It  is  said  of  John  Adams,  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  that  after  spending 
his  mornings  in  executive  duties  he  would 
devote  his  leisure  afternoons  to  farming  and 
gardening." 

In  studying  the  history  of  pedagogy,  in  order 
to  learn  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  more  promi- 
nent writers  on  the  manual  training  question, 
two  names  which  must  not  be  overlooked  are 
those  of  Tuiskon  Ziller  and  Uno  Cygnaeus. 

Tuiskon  Ziller  in  1864  published  his  scientific 
work  entitled  ".  Grundlegung  zur  Lehre  von 
Erziehenden  Unterricht "  ("  The  Principles  for 
the  Study  of  Educational  Instruction  ").  Ziller 
was  professor  of  pedagogy  at  the  University  of 
Leipzig,  and  was  a  follower  of  Herbart  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  word.  He  discusses  manual 
training  very  thoroughly. 

"  Its  object,"  he  says,  "  is  to  make  any  life's 
calling  easier,  and  it  should  not  be  put  in 
the  direct  service  of  the  state  by  the  teaching 
either  of  special  trades  or  of  manual  work  in 
the  home.  If  the  work  is  to  be  arranged  so 
that  a  profit  will  accrue  from  the  sale  of  the 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  87 

objects  made,  the  future  of  each  child  will  be 
sacrificed.  This  question  is  not  to  be  regarded 
from  an  economical  standpoint.  The  selling  of 
the  work  would  imply  a  continual  repetition 
of  about  the  same  exercise,  which  means  a 
thoughtless,  mechanical  occupation. 

"  The  elements  of  various  handicrafts  may  be 
taught,  such  as  turnery,  the  use  of  the  hammer, 
saw,  plane,  bore,  and  file.  Such  models  must  be 
taken  from  the  series  in  which  the  simplest  exer- 
cises are  to  be  found,  so  as  to  avoid  difficult  and 
intricate  combinations.  Theoretical  and  practical 
work  should  as  far  as  possible  bear  one  another 
out. 

"  On  the  one  hand,  natural  science,  mathemat- 
ics, grammar,  history,  geography,  drawing,  and 
singing  should  offer  problems  to  the  work-shop  ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  practical  experiences 
gathered  in  the  manual  work  should  make  book 
studies  the  more  easily  learned." 

Ziller  argues  very  strongly  against  the  theory 
which  had  been  previously  advanced ;  namely, 
that  "  manual  work  should  form  the  basis  for 
all  instruction  whose  aim  is  a  general  educa- 
tional one." 

Uno  Gygnaeus  has  not  come  to  occupy  his 
prominent  place  among  the  educators  of  his 


88  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

time  through  his  numerous  scientific  contribu- 
tions to  pedagogical  literature.  His  views  have 
been  expressed  less  in  words  than  in  deeds.  They 
stand  forth  in  sharp,  distinct  clearness  in  those 
special  school  laws  which  put  life  into  the  public 
school  system  of  Finland,  and  in  all  the  princi- 
ples according  to  which  this  system  is  now  car- 
ried on.  They  have  been  subjected  to  the  closest 
practical  investigation,  and  all  Finnish  teachers 
know  how  well  they  have  stood  the  test.  Some 
of  these  principles,  taken  from  observation  of  the 
school  work,  and  from  information  given  per- 
sonally, are  the  following: 

"  The  primary  school  should  be  organized  as 
a  general  fundamental  educational  institution, 
common  to  the  children  of  all  classes  of  society. 
Its  direction  must  be  practical,  and  its  system 
of  instruction  thoroughly  educational.  Since  the 
mother  is  the  chief  educator  in  the  home,  the 
growing  woman  must  be  trained  for  her  future 
vocation,  and  be  made  familiar  with  those  facts 
that  relate  to  the  child's  physical  life  and  its 
education.  To  bring  this  about,  nurseries  and 
kindergartens  should  be  connected  with  every 
public  school.  Religious  and  moral  training, 
the  teaching  of  orderliness  and  cleanliness,  are 
more  important  requisites  for  the  school  to 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING  89 

fulfill  than  the  teaching  of  book  studies.  In 
order  to  promote  the  practical  tendency  in  the 
school  work,  much  stress  must  be  laid  upon 
drawing,  singing,  music,  and  manual  work. 

11  The  manual  work  is  to  be  applied  as  a 
means  of  formal  education ;  that  is,  to  develop 
the  eye  to  the  sense  of  form,  and  the  hand  to 
dexterity,  not  for  a  particular  trade,  but  for  pro- 
moting symmetry  in  general,  and  creating  order- 
liness and  neatness.  Carpentry  work,  turnery, 
and  smith's  work  are  excellent  means  to  this 
end. 

"  The  manual  work  is  neither  to  be  driven 
like  a  trade,  nor  to  be  regarded  as  a  recreation 
or  play.  It  must  hold  a  position  of  equal  impor- 
tance with  the  other  subjects.  For  these  reasons, 
it  must  be  taught  by  pedagogically  educated  per- 
sons, particularly  so  in  the  country  schools,  where 
the  general  teacher  should  also  give  instruction 
in  this  kind  of  work. 

"  The  teacher  himself  must  study  the  theory 
and  its  practical  application.  He  must  have  a 
true  conception  of  its  aim  as  a  means  of  for- 
mal training,  and  he  must  have  learned  most 
of  the  manipulations  so  as  to  be  able  to  properly 
direct  his  class.  I  do  not  underestimate  theo- 
retical lessons  ;  I  believe  that  all  work,  even  the 


90  THE  HISTORY  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING 

roughest  manual  labor,  presupposes  a  mental  mo- 
tive and  a  mental  aim. 

"  Just  as  the  masses,  who  form  the  germ  of 
society,  should  receive  a  higher  education  in 
order  to  acquire  a  nobler,  more  moral,  and  more 
ideal  ambition  for  whatever  work  they  may  have 
chosen,  so  should  the  so-called  better  class  be 
taught  that  God  has  not  given  the  hands  merely 
as  limbs  for  taking  food  and  drink,  but  rather 
as  the  most  useful  arid  ingenious  of  tools. 

"  I  do  not  forget  that  the  hand  guides  the  pen, 
the  paint-brush,  and  the  operation  knife,  and  I 
also  value  such  wonderful  work  as  it  has  achieved 
in  these  directions  ;  but  I  would  lay  stress  upon 
general  hand  dexterity  as  a  most  important  ac- 
quisition to  each  and  every  one.  Those  of  high 
or  low  station  who  possess  this  valuable  treasure 
will  better  understand  its  worth  in  others. 

"  Teach  the  child  general  manual  dexterity,  and 
the  practical  work  will  in  time  take  a  position  of 
honor.  The  strife  between  capital  and  labor  will 
then  be  made  far  less  severe." 


CHAPTER   IV. 

ALFRED  JOHANNSON'S   NAAS   MODEL  SERIES. 


OTTO  SALAMON'S   INTRODUCTION. 

(Translated from  the  Swedish.} 

IN  questions  relating  to  educational  matters, 
there  is  no  danger  so  great  as  that  of  re- 
maining at  a  stand-still.  These  questions,  like 
all  things  in  this  universe,  are  continually  under- 
going change.  Much  that  was  yesterday  found 
desirable  can  to-day  hardly  be  used,  and  will 
to-morrow  be  discarded  altogether. 

It  is  easy  to  admit  the  truth  of  this  fact,  with- 
out committing  one's  self  to  the  error  of  saying 
that  all  that  is  old  is  bad,  and  all  that  is  new, 
good.  There  are  truths  which  can  never  grow 
old,  though  they  may  at  times  appear  disguised 
under  new  forms ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
many  new  ideas  seem  excellent  until  they  have 
been  subjected  to  the  actual  tests  of  experience, 
when  they  are  found  to  be  utterly  impracticable. 

91 


92  HAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

In  educational  matters,  the  golden  mean  must 
be  chosen.  On  the  one  hand,  we  must  be  care- 
ful not  to  stagnate,  not  to  offer  ourselves  as  prey 
to  the  advocates  of  the  old  methods ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  should  seek  to  avoid  that  restless 
anxiety  to  change  a  system  of  education  which 
has  hardly  had  time  to  be  submitted  to  a  fair 
trial,  for  a  newer  system  which  has  perhaps 
never  been  tried  at  all. 

The  true  teacher  will  adopt  the  method  which 
in  his  opinion  is  best  calculated  to  produce  a 
full  development  of  the  faculties,  and  will  then 
see  that  his  method  is  carefully  and  systemati- 
cally carried  out.  The  teacher  soon  finds,  by 
experience,  that  in  educational  matters  "  things 
are  not  always  as  they  seem,"  and  what  appears 
clear  and  simple  may  really  be  of  a  very  com- 
plex nature. 

The  experienced  teacher  is  careful  not  to 
jump  at  conclusions  concerning  any  method ; 
he  is  not  satisfied  to  accept  what  others  may  say 
regarding  it,  nor  is  he  willing  even  to  trust  to  his 
own  judgment;  but^  before  he  will  adopt  a  new 
method,  he  must  know  from  personal  observation 
and  experience  what  results  it  yields. 

Educational  Sloyd,  one  of  the  latest  educa- 
tional methods,  is  as  yet  in  its  first  stage  of 


OTTO  SALAMON'S  INTRODUCTION  93 

development.  The  fundamental  principles  which 
govern  it  are  clearly  defined,  but  the  question 
as  to  the  most  advantageous  application  of  these 
principles  is  still  an  open  one.  We  have  taken 
advantage  of  the  investigations  and  suggestions 
made  by  others,  and  have  availed  ourselves  of 
the  results  of  their  wide  experiences.  This 
applies  in  particular  to  the  selection  of  our 
present  series  of  models.  A  series  of  models 
which  a  few  years  ago  was  considered  practicable 
is  now  found  to  be  unsuitable. 

In  an  institution  such  as  that  at  Naas, 
where  the  avowed  aim  is  to  educate  teachers, 
any  neglect  to  keep  pace  with  the  spirit  of  the 
times  would  have  been  inexcusable.  The  ex- 
periences gained  from  each  course  of  instruction 
have  been  invaluable,  and  we  have  profited  by 
the  suggestions  of  the  students  themselves. 

Three  hours  a  week  were  devoted  to  discussion, 
and  it  was  then  that  each  student  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  express  his  ideas  on  the  subject.  In 
this  way,  with  hundreds  of  eyes  watching  and 
criticising  our  work,  it  was  comparatively  easy 
to  discover  and  correct  the  errors  in  the  system. 
These  changes,  however,  have  not  always  been 
found  to  be  improvements,  and  it  has  often  been 
necessary  to  reinstate  the  older  methods. 


94  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

The  Naas  method,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Naas  system,  is  that  particular  method  which 
adopts  the  exercises  of  carpentry  Sloyd  as  a  basis 
for  the  educational  manual  Sloyd.  Neither  tools 
nor  models  should  form  the  basis  of  any  method ; 
for  exercises  performed  with  one  tool  do  not 
become  more  or  less  difficult  when  practiced 
with  the  assistance  of  other  tools,  and  models 
are  merely  chance  expressions  of  various  combi- 
nations of  exercises.  By  exercises  we  mean 
work  done  by  the  use  of  tools,  in  accordance 
with  definite  rules,  designed  to  meet  special  pur- 
poses. 

The  statement  that  "  the  models  of  the  series 
are  to  be  arranged  in  consecutive  order  accord- 
ing to  their  comparative  difficulty,  proceeding 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex,"  refers,  there- 
fore, to  the  series,  of  exercises  to  be  used,  more 
than  to  the  models  which  are  the  embodiment 
of  the  work  done  in  these  exercises. 

As  to  the  choice  of  models,  the  following  rules 
should  be  observed : 


1.  All   articles  of    luxury   should  be   excluded,   and  the 
models  should  have  a  practical  value. 

2.  The  models  should  be  such  as  can  be  finished  by  the 
pupils  themselves. 


OTTO  SALAMON'S  INTRODUCTION  95 

3.  They  should  be  made  entirely  of  wood;  some  of  soft 
and  others  of  hard  wood. 

4.  As  little  material  as  possible  should  be  used. 

5.  The  work  should  not  require  polish. 

6.  The  models  should  require  little  or  no  turning  and  carv- 
ing. 

7.  They  should  develop  the  sense  of  form  and  beauty. 

8.  The  construction  of  the  series  of  models  should  require 
the  use  of  all  necessary  tools,  and  the  performance  of  the 
most  important  manipulations  connected  with  wood-work. 

The  practical  work  at  the  Naas  Seminarium 
originally  consisted  of  but  one  series  of  models. 
This  has  been  changed  so  that  the  student  can 
work  out  such  a  series  as  will  be  best  adapted  to 
the  school  in  which  it  is  to  be  used.  We  have 
at  present  three  series  with  nearly  the  same  exer- 
cises. Wherever  possible,  the  same  models  are 
used  in  each  of  the  three  series. 

The  three  series  of  the  Naas  system  are :  "  The 
Fundamental  Series  for  Country  Elementary 
Schools,"  "  The  Town  Elementary  School  Series 
for  Boys,"  and  the  "  Higher  Boys'  School  Series." 
The  series  for  higher  girls'  schools  has  not  as  yet 
been  completed. 

OTTO  SALAMON. 
NAAS,  March  18,  1890. 


96 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


THE  NAAS  MODELS. 


/.  Models  in  the  Fundamental  Series. 


(A  Series  for  the  Country  Elementary  Schools.) 


I.  a.  Kindergarten 

pointer. 
I.  b.  Kindergarten 

pointer. 
II.  Rake  tooth. 

III.  Round  flower  stick. 

IV.  Penholder. 

V.  Rectangular      flower 

stick. 

VI.  Slate-pencil  holder. 
VII.  Key  label. 
VIII.  Thread  winder. 
IX.  Dibble. 
X.  Harness  pin. 
XI.  Paper-cutter. 
XII.  a.  Pail  handle. 
XII.  b.  Part  of  an  ox-bow. 

XIII.  Small  bowl. 

XIV.  Hammer  handle. 
XV.  Spoon. 

XVI.  Chopping  board. 
XVII.  Flower-pot  cross. 
XVIII.  Scythe  sharpener. 
XIX.  Scoop. 
XX.  Clothes-rack. 
XXI.  Flower-pot  stand. 


XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 

XXXV. 

XXXVI. 

XXXVII. 

XXXVIII. 

XXXIX. 

XL. 

XLI. 

XLIL 

XLIII. 

XLIV. 

XLV. 

XLVI. 


Ax  handle. 
Footstool. 
Barrel  cover. 
Box. 
Ladle. 

Baker's  shovel. 
Clothes-beater. 
Ruler. 
Bootjack. 
Lamp  bracket. 
Weaving  shuttle. 
Knife  box. 
American  ax  han- 
dle. 

Match  box. 
Baseball  bat. 
Meter  measure. 
Pen  box. 
Stool. 

Try-square. 
Plate  rack. 
Marking  gauge. 
Rake  head. 
Picture  frame. 
Tool  rack. 
Dough  trough. 


THE  NAAS  MODELS 


97 


XLVII 
XLVIII 


I. 


Book-stand.  XLIX.  Cabinet.. 

Hooped  bucket.  L.  Table. 

II.  Models  in  the  Town  Elementary  Series. 

(A  Series  for  the  City  Public  Schools.) 


a.  Kindergarten 

pointer. 
I.  b.  Kindergarten 

pointer. 
II.  Parcel  pin. 

III.  Round  flower  stick. 

IV.  Penholder. 

V.  Rectangular    flower 

stick. 

VI.  Slate-pencil  holder. 
VII.  Key  label. 
VIII.  Thread  winder. 
IX.  Bar. 
X.  Pen  rest. 
XI.  Paper-cutter. 
XII.  Strop  stick. 

XIII.  Small  bowl. 

XIV.  Hammer  handle. 
XV.  Spoon. 

XVI.  Chopping  board, 
XVII.  Flower-pot  cross. 
XVIII.  Meter  measure. 
XIX.  Scoop. 

XX.  Clothes  rack. 
XXI.  Flower-pot  stand. 
XXII.  Ax  handle. 

XXIII.  Footstool. 

XXIV.  Book  carrier. 


XXV.  Box. 
XXVI.  Ladle. 
XXVII.  Baker's  shovel. 
XXVIII.  Clothes-beater. 
XXIX.  Ruler. 
XXX.  Bootjack. 
XXXI.  Lamp  bracket. 
XXXII.  Weaving      shut- 
tle. 

XXXIII.  Knife  box. 

XXXIV.  American  ax  han- 

dle. 

XXXV.  Matchbox. 
XXXVI.  Baseball  bat. 
XXXVII.  Triangle. 
XXXVIII.  Pen  box. 
XXXIX.  Stool. 

XL.  Try-square. 
XLI.  Plate  rack. 
XLII.  Marking  gauge. 
XLIII.  Rake  head. 
XLIV.  Picture  frame. 
XLV.  Tool  rack. 
XLVI.  Dough  trough. 
XLVII.  Bookstand. 
XLVIII.  Hooped  bucket. 
XLIX.  Cabinet. 
L.  Table. 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


III.  Models  in  the  High-School  Series. 


I.  a.  Kindergarten 

pointer. 
I.  b.  Kindergarten 

pointer. 
II.  Parcel  pin. 

III.  Round  flower  stick. 

IV.  Letter  opener. 

V.  Rectangular      flower 

stick. 
VI.  Charcoal   and  pencil 

holder. 

VII.  Key  label. 
VIII.  Pack-thread  winder. 
IX.  Bar. 
X.  Pen  rest. 
XI.  Paper-cutter. 
XII.  Strop  stick. 

XIII.  Small  bowl. 

XIV.  Hammer  handle. 
XV.  Pen  tray. 

XVI.  Chopping  board. 
XVII.  Flower-pot  cross. 
XVIII.  Meter  measure. 
XIX.  Scoop. 
XX.  Clothes  rack. 
XXI.  Flower-pot  stand. 
XXII.  Flower-press  roller 

and  rests. 
XXIII.  Footstool. 


XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 

XXXV. 

XXXVI. 

XXXVII. 

XXXVIII. 

XXXIX. 

XL. 

XLI. 

XLII. 

XLIII. 

XLIV. 

XLV. 

XLVI. 

XLVII. 

XLVIII. 

XLIX. 

L. 


Book  carriero 

Box. 

Ladle. 

Flower-press. 

Coat  stretcher. 

Ruler. 

Bootjack. 

Lamp  bracket. 

Weaving  shuttle. 

Knife  box. 

American  ax  han- 
dle. 

Match  box. 

Baseball  bat. 

Triangle. 

Pen  box. 

Stool. 

Try-square. 

Drawing  board 
with  frame. 

Marking  gauge. 

Bracket. 

Picture  frame. 

Tool  rack. 

Tea  tray. 

Book  stand. 

Hooped  bucket. 

Cabinet. 

Table. 


TUE  NAAS  MODELS 


99 


Exercises  in  the  Nads  Model  Series. 


I.  Long  cut  with  knife. 
II.  Cross  cut  with  knife. 

III.  Oblique      cut     with 

knife. 

IV.  Bevel  cut  with  knife. 
V.  Sawing  off. 

VI.  Convex  cut  with 

knife. 

VII.  Long  or  rip  sawing. 
VIII.  Edge  planing. 
IX.  Squaring. 
X.  Gauging. 
XL  Boring   with  brace 

and  shell-bit. 
XII.  Face  planing. 

XIII.  Filing. 

XIV.  Boring   with  brace 

and  center-bit. 
XV.  Convex  sawing. 
XVI.  Concave    cut    wit  h 

knife. 

XVII.  Bevel  planing. 
XVIII.  Modeling  or  shaping 

with  plane. 

XIX.  Cross-cut  sawing 
with  tenon  or  back 
saw. 

XX.  Wave  sawing. 
XXI.  Plane  surface  cut. 
7 


XXII.  Scraping. 

XXIII.  Obstacle  planing. 

XXIV.  Perpendicular 

chiseling. 

XXV.  Oblique  chiseling. 
XXVI.  Gouging   with 
gouge     and 
spoon-iron. 

XXVII.  Concave  chisel- 
ing. 

XXVIII.  Chopping. 
XXIX.  Smoothing     with 

spokeshave. 

XXX.  Modeling  or  shap- 
ing with  spoke- 
shave. 

XXXI.  Oblique  sawing. 
XXXII.  Oblique     planing 

(tapering). 

XXXIII.  Smoothing  up. 
XXXIV.  En  I  planing. 
XXXV.  Halving    with 

knife. 
XXXVI.  Working  in  hard 

wood. 

XXXVII.  Fitting  in  pegs. 
XXXVIII.   Beveling     with 
;.      oblique      posi- 
tion. 


100 


N  A  AS  MODEL  SERIKS 


XXXIX.  Gluing. 

XL.  Boring    with  brad- 
awl. 
XLI.  Sinking       iron 

plates. 

XLIL  Nailing. 
XLIII.  Punching  in  nails. 
XLIV.  Beveling  or  chamfer- 
i  n  g   with    draw- 
knife. 
XLV.  Perpendicular 

gouging. 

XLVI.  Plain  jointing. 
XLVII.  Dovetail   clamp- 
i  n  g     (oblique 
grooving). 

XLVIII.  Oblique  gouging. 
XLIX.  Chamfering     with 

chisel. 

L.  Circular  sawing. 
LI.  Fixing  with  screws. 
LII.  Modeling  with 

draw-knife. 

LIII.  Square  plan- 
ing  (across  the 
grain). 

LIV.  Wedge  planing 
(smoothing 
plane). 

LV.  Planing  with  round 
or  compass  plane. 


LVI.  Fixing  with  wooden 
.pegs  (for  planing 
thin  wood). 
LVII.  Straight     edge 

grooving. 

LVIII.  Dovetailing      (com- 
mon). 
LIX.  Planing  with  use  of 

shooting-board. 
LX.  Scooping   out    with 

outside  gouge. 
LXI.  Axle  fitting  (applied 

only  to  shuttle). 
LXII.  Housing   or    square 

grooving. 

LXIII.  Long  oblique  plan- 
ing. 

LXIV.  Setting   out   (mark- 
ing divisions  with 
chisel). 
LXV.  Grooving  with  knife 

and  chisel. 
LXVI.  Gluing  with   use   of 

clamps. 

LXVII.  Sawing  with  key- 
hole saw. 

LXVIII.  Oblique  edge  groov- 
ing. 

LXIX.  Slotting  (mortising 
with  saw  and 
chisel). 


FUNDAMENTAL   SERIKfi 


101 


LXX.  Dovetailing     in  | 

thick  wood. 
LXXI.  Mitering. 
LXXII.  Mortising    (c  o  m- 
m  o  n         and 
oblique). 
LXXIII.  Halving  with  saw 

and   chisel. 
LXXIV.  Rabbeting. 
LXXV.  Graving    with   V- 

tool. 

LXXVI.  Half-lap  dovetail- 
ing. 

LXXVII.  Fixing  hinges. 
LXXVIII.  Fixing  lock. 
LXXIX.  Double  oblique 

dovetailing. 
LXXX.  Oblique  notching. 


LXXXI. 

Half-concealed 

edge-grooving. 

LXXXIL 

Hollowing    with 

plane. 

LXXXIII. 

Fixing     bottom 

of  bucket. 

LXXXIV. 

Hooping. 

LXXXV. 

Haunched    ten- 

on (concealed 

mortising)  . 

LXXXVI. 

Blocking   (g  1  u- 

ing   with   use 

of  blocks). 

LXXXVII. 

Mortised  block- 

ing. 

LXXXVIII. 

Vertical     long 

sawing     (foot 

sawing). 

FUNDAMENTAL   SERIES. 


To  simplify  matters  throughout  these  series,  the 
two  broadest  surfaces  of  any  model  will  be  called 
the  sides ;  the  two  smaller  surfaces  in  the  direction 
of  its  grain,  the  edges  ;  and  the  two  remaining 
surfaces,  showing  the  ends  of  the  fibers,  will  be 
called  the  ends.  The  expression  "  corners  "  will 
refer  to  the  lines  in  which  any  surfaces  meet. 
Geometrically  speaking,  this  would  be  incorrect ; 
but  mechanically — that  is,  in  the  language  of  the 
shop — it  is  not. 


102  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

The  woods,  white  birch,  cherry,  red  oak,  and 
white  wood,  will  be  abbreviated,  W.  13.,  C.,  R.  0., 
W.  W.  Their  prices  are:  birch,  about  $5  per  hun- 
dred ;  cherry,  $7  per  hundred ;  white  wood,  $4  to 
$6.  Board  measure  is  twelve  inches  square  (sur- 
face measure)  and  one  inch  or  less  in  thickness. 
The  woods  can  be  obtained  in  all  thicknesses  up 
to  six  inches,  varying  in  each  case  by  one  fourth 
of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  length  varies  from 
12  to  16  feet.  Standard  lengths  are  12,  13,  14, 
and  16  feet.  Special  lengths  are  18  to  20 
feet. 

The  dimensions  will  be  given  in  the  inch  and 
the  metric  system.  In  Sweden  the  latter  is  used. 
On  all  the  drawings,  the  dimensions  are  stated  in 
inches.  The  full  dimensions  do  not  always 
appear  on  the  drawings,  but  they  arc  given  in 
the  statements  under  each  drawing. 

As  the  ordinary  rule  has  no  smaller  dimen- 
sion than  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch,  each 
number  of  millimeters  is  expressed  in  the 
nearest  equivalent  in  inches  and  sixteenths  of 
inches.  The  abbreviation  cm.  represents  centi- 
meter. 

All  models,  when  finished,  are  to  be  smoothed 
with  sand-paper,  but  only  on  those  parts  where 
the  use  of  it  is  absolutely  necessary. 


FUNDAMENTAL   SERIES  103 

Fine  sand-paper,  No.  1,  should  first  be  used  ; 
then  coarse,  No.  0  or  00. 

The  tools  are  always  named  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  used  for  the  making  of  the 
models. 

Model  No.  I.  (a). 
Kindergarten   Pointer  of  W.  B.  or  C.  (Straight  Grain). 


OE 


1  inch 

1  cm. 
Length,  3J$  in.,  or  10  cm.  Thickness,  A  in.,  or  0.7  cm. 

1.  Cut   a   suitable   piece    of  wood  in    its  entire 
length,  so  that  two  of  its  surfaces  will  be  at  right 
angles  to  each  other. 

2.  Cut    the    required    thickness,    having     first 
measured    same     with    an    inch    rule    or    meter 
measure. 

3.  Taper  the  four  sides,  having  drawn  a  small 
square  on  one  of  the  ends.     The  object  will  now 
have  the  appearance  of  a  regular  four-sided  trun- 
cated pyramid.     Cut  the  corners,  making  a  regu- 
lar octagonal  truncated  pyramid.     Cut  the  corners 
again,  making  a  regular  cone. 

4.  Measure  the  required  length   and  cut  off  at 
the  broad  end. 

Exercises. — Long  cut  and  cross  cut. 


104  NAA8  MODEL  SERIES 

Model  No.  I.  (b). 
Kindergarten  Pointer  of  W.  B.  or  C. 


1  inch 

I ! 1 

1cm. 
Length,  3^  in.,  or  10  cm.  Thickness,  &  in.,  or  0.7  cm. 

1.  Proceed  as  in  No.  I.   (a),  1,  2,  3. 

2.  Make  the  two  oblique  cuts   (the  entire  work 
to  be  done  with  the  Sloyd  knife). 

Exercises. — Long  cut,  cross  cut,  oblique  cut. 

Model  No.    II. 
Rake  Tooth  of  W.  B.  or  C. 


inch. 


1  cm. 

,  3i8<j  in.,  or  9  cm.  TfiickntRK,  -fa  in.,  or  0.8  cm. 

1.  Proceed  as  in  No.  I.  (a),  1   and  2. 

2.  Taper  as  in  No.  I.  (a),  3,  making  a  regular 
four-sided  truncated  pyramid. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  105 

3.  Chamfer  the  corners,  as  shown  in  drawing. 

4.  Measure  the  length  and  cut  off. 

Exercises. — Long  cut,  cross  cut,  bevel  cut. 

Model   No.   III. 
Round  Flower  Stick  of  W.  W. 


linch 

i  .  ' 
1  cm. 

Length,  11-1$  in.,  or  30  cm.  Thickness.  ^ff  in.,  or  1  cm. 

1.  Saw  off  from   board  with  rip  saw  a  suitable 
piece  of  wood   a  little   longer  than    the   finished 
length.      Remove    this    piece    with   the  cross-cut 
saw. 

2.  Cut  it  in  its  entire  length  in  the  form  of  a 
square  in  cross  section.     Cut  the  corners,  making 
a  regular  octagonal  prism. 

3.  Round    it  to  a  regular  cylinder.     Taper  the 
end   as  shown  in   drawing.      Measure  the  length 
and  cut  off. 

4.  Round  the  end  as  shown  in  drawing. 

Exercises. — Scwving  off,    long   cut,  cross   cut,  con- 
vex cut  with  knife. 


106  JVAAS  MODEL  SKRIES 


Model  No.  IV. 
Penholder  of  W.  W. 


J  inch  1  cm. 

Length,  7}&  in. ,  or  20  cm.  Thieknets,  fa  in.,  or  I  Mem. 

1.  Proceed  as  in  No.  IIL,  1,  2,-  3. 

2.  Taper  as  before.      Measure  the  length1  and 
cut  off. 

3.  Round     the    thicker     end.      The    crescent- 
shaped    seat   for   the   pen   to    fit   in   is    made  by 
boring  a  series  of  holes  in  the  lines,  as  indicated 
by  the  drawing,  with    a   suitable  twist-drill. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  cut,  cross  cut,  con- 
vex cut. 

1  In  laying  out  tho  dimensions  of  a  model,  it  is  well  to  lay 
the  rule  down  on  one  of  its  edges,  placing  it  elose  to  a  mark 
previously  drawn  on  the  model  from  which  the  required 
measurement  is  to  he  taken.  Use  the  point  of  the  knife  to 
mark  out  the  measurement. 

It  is  likewise  advisable  to  lay  out  the  measurement  about 
one  sixteenth  of  an  inch  more  than  the  required  dimension, 
so  as  to  have  a  little  spare  room  to  work  down  on,  in  case  of 
any  slight  mistake.  By  following  this  rule  throughout  the 
series,  it  will  be  easier  to  make  the  work  more  correct  than 
if  the  exact  dimension  is  laid  out  at  the  start,  either  by  means 
of  rule,  compass,  or  marking  gauge.  This  also  applies  to 
those  measurements  which  of  themselves  are  exceedingly 
small. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  107 

Model  No.  V. 
Rectangular  Flower  Stick  of  W.  W. 

13}  l > 


j  inch 

I  '  ' 

Jem. 

• 

Length,  13}g  in.,  or  35  cm.  Thickness,  Te5  in.,  or  1  cm. 

1.  Saw  off  along  and  across  the  grain  of   the 
board    a   suitable    piece   of   wood    with    rip   and 
cross-cut  saw. 

2.  Plane   face    and    edge    at   right   angles  with 
try-plane  or  fore-plane. 

3.  Measure  the  thickness  at  each  end  with  rule 
and  plane  down  with  try-plane. 

4.  One  end  is  made  level   with    knife.      Draw 
diagonals  on  it  to  obtain  the  point  of  the  pyra- 
mid. 

5.  Mark  out  the  length  of  the  pyramid  on  the 
four  sides. 

6.  Cut  obliquely  to  produce  pyramid. 

7.  Measure  the  entire  length  and  cut  off. 

Exercises. — Sawing   off,  long  sowing,    edge  plan- 
ing, squaring,  oblique  cut,  convex  cut. 


108  NAA8  MODEL   SERIES 

Model  No.  VI. 
Slate-Pencil  Holder  of  W.  W, 

«• 7-H 


lilllllll  l_l_l  < 1-Ajj > 

1  inch         1  cm. 
Length,  7\$  in.,  or  20  cm,  Tfticknesit,  -&  in.,  or  1 .3 cm, 

1.  Remove  from  block,  with  rip  and  cross-cut 
saw,  a  suitable  piece  of  wood.     Cut  as  in  previous 
model,  making  the  four  sides  equal. 

2.  Square    off    one    end   with  knife,  and  draw 
diagonal    lines  on  this  end,  so    as    to  locate  the 
center.     Bore  a  hole  with  suitable  bit. 

3.  Measure  the  length  and  cut  off. 

4.  Lay    out    on    the   second    end    the    reduced 
square.     Draw  lines  to  indicate  the  required  taper 
on  two  opposite  sides.     Cut  to  these  lines.     Now 
lay  out  the  lines  of  taper  on  the  two   remaining 
sides  and  cut  to  these  lines. 

5.  Reduce    to   its    cylindrical    form  with    knife 
and  half-round  file. 

6.  Round  the  ends  witli  file. 

Exercises. — Sawing    off,    long     cut,   boring     with 
shell -bit,  convex  cut,  cross  cut,  filing. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  109 

Model   No.  VII. 

Key  Label  of  W.  W. 

4 » 


linch 


tern. 
Length,  4  in.,  or  10,1  cm,  Breadth,  1-ft  in.,  or  3.8  cm. 

1.  Prepare  the  wood  as  before. 

2.  Plane   face   and    edge   at   right  angles  with 
try-plane.1     Gauge  breadth  and  plane  down. 

3.  Draw  outlines  with  pencil,  square,  and  com- 
pass. 

4.  Bore  the  hole  with  gouge  bit.     Gauge  thick- 
ness and  plane  down. 

5.  Saw  off  the  square  end  with  back  cross-cut 
saw  and  cut  the  curved  end  with  knife.     Finish 
both  ends  with  half-round  file. 

6.  Cut  the  notches. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  cross  cut,  edge  planing, 
squaring,  gauging,  boring  with  shell  bit,  convex  cut, 
cross  cut,  filing. 

1  Even  on  surfaces  of  small  area  the  Swedes  use  the  try- 
plane,  and  the  Sloyd  is  taught  according  to  this  practice.  It 
is  believed  that  the  child  will  be  assisted  in  his  work  by  the 
weight  of  the  tool  itself.  However,  a  smoothing-plane  might 
be  used  for  such  work  as  this. 


110 


NAA8  MODEL  SERIES 


Model   No.   VIII. 
Thread  Winder  of  W.  B. 


Geometrical  Construction. 


inch 


1cm. 


1  . 


Length,  3THji».,  or  9c7/i. 


1  inch  Jem. 

2. 
Breadth,  1T%  in.,  or  4  cm. 


1.  Prepare   the   wood    as   before,  sawing  out   a 
piece  about   one   half  an   inch    longer  than    the 
finished  length. 

2.  Plane    face   and    edge  at   right  angles   with 
try-plane. 

3.  Draw    the    outline  as  indicated  in  the   geo- 
metrical construction  (2),  with  pencil,  square,  and 
•compass,  allowing  equal  waste  on  each  end. 

4.  The  concave  ends  are  made  by  boring  with 
a  center-bit. 

5.  Gauge   the  thickness    and  plane  down  with 
try-plane.1 

1  This  object  may  first  be  reduced  to  its  required  thickness, 


FUNDAMENTAL   SERIES  HI 

6.  Saw   close   to   the  line  with  a  fine   compass 
saw,  leaving  sufficient  material  so  as  to  finish  to 
the  line  with  knife  and  file. 

7.  Slightly  round  the  concave  ends  with  knife 
and  smooth  with  file. 

8.  Smooth  the  edges  with  file. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing,  squaring,  boring  with  center-bit, 
gauging,  convex  sawing,  long  cut,  convex  cut,  concave 
cut,  filing. 

Model   No.    IX. 
Dibble  of  W.  W. 


1  inch        1  cm. 
Lenylk,  lljjj  in.,  or  30  em.  Thickntisa,  1  in.,  ot'2.5  cm. 

1.  Prepare  the  wood  as  before.1 

and  then  fastened  to  another  piece  of  wood  in  the  vise,  and 
the  openings  for  the  coneave  ends  may  be  carefully  bored 
through  from  both  sides.  This,  however,  is  not  the  "  Niiiis 
method." 

1  In  removing  the  wood  from  the  block  or  board,  it  is  best 


113  NAAS  MODEL 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles  with  use 
of  jack  and  try-plane. 

3.  Gauge  breadth  and  thickness  and  then  plane 
down. 

4.  Draw  diagonals  on  each  end  and,  from  the 
centers  thus  obtained,  describe  circles  within  the 
given  squares. 

5.  Plane  off  the  corners  with  try-plane,  mak- 
ing the   work    octagonal.     Then  make  it  sixteen 
sided. 

6.  Finish    to    a    cylinder  with   the   smoothing- 
plane. 

7.  Taper  one  end  with  knife. 

8.  Measure  the  length  and  saw  off. 

9.  Round  both  ends  as  indicated  in  the  draw- 
ing. 

10.  Smooth   with  file. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sauting,  edge  plan- 
ing, squaring,  gauging,  bevel  planing,  convex  shaping 
or  modeling  with  the  plane,  convex  cut,  cross  cut,  filing. 


in  all  cases  to  take  the  piece  quite  a  little  longer,  broader, 
and  thicker  than  the  finished  length,  breadth,  and  thickness 
require,  because  more  accurate  results  will  be  obtained  by 
working  a  model  down  to  its  correct  dimensions  with  smooth- 
ing tools,  such  as  the  file,  scraper,  or  spokeshave,  than  by 
depending  too  much  upon  the  saw  or  jack-plane.  Besides, 
a  slight  error  can  more  readily  be  rectified. 


FUNDAMENTAL   SERIES 


113 


Model   No.  X. 
Harness  Pin  of  W.  B. 


,4 

I 
1 

<  —  !9G~^ 

0 

«ra 


/  lack 
1cm. 


Length,  4  in.,  or  10  cm. 


Breadth,  }3  in.,  or  2  cm. 


1.  Saw  off  from  block  as  in  previous  exercises. 

2.  Dress  the  piece  on  its  four  sides  with  a  small 
hand  ax. 

3.  Draw  the  form  on  each  end  as  indicated  in 
the  drawing.     Reduce  to  shape  with  knife. 

4.  Locate  the  position   of  the  recess  with  com- 
pass, and  cut  out  with  tenon  saw  and  knife. 

5.  Bore   the   holes    with    a   suitable   gouge    or 
auger-bit.1 

6.  Smooth  with  file. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  chopping,  long  cut,  cross 
sawing  with  tenon  saw,  concave  cut,  boring  with  shell 
bit,  cross  cut,  convex  cat,  filing. 

The  boring  may  be  done  from  both  sides. 


114  NAA8  MODEL  SERIES 

Model  No.  XI. 
Paper-cutter  of  W.  B. 


1  inch 

UuJ 

1cm. 
Length,,  lllg  in.,  or  30  cm.  Breadth,  1T3B  in.,  or  3  cm. 

1.  Saw   off  from    block.      Piano   one    face    and 
edge  at  right  angles  with  try-plane.     Gauge  the 
thickness.     First  saw  off  with  rip  saw  and  then 
plane  down  with  try-plane. 

2.  Draw  outline  as  in  drawing. 

3.  First  saw  off  with  compass  saw ;  then  smooth 
the  edges  with  knife. 

4.  Pare  off  the  broad  surfaces  from  the  outline 
of  the   back   down   to    a   center  line   (previously 
drawn).     This  center   line  will  thus  become  the 
cutting  edge  of  the  paper-knife. 

5.  Round  the  edges  of  the  handle  and  the  back- 
edge  of  the  blade  with  knife. 

6.  Smooth   with  file  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  wave  sawing,  con- 
cave cut,  convex  cut,  plane  surface  cat,  filing,  scraping. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  115 

Model  No.  XII.  (a). 
Movable  Pail  Handle  of  W.  B. 


1  inch 

,.,**> 

Jem. 

Lew/Mi,  1 1ft  i«.,  or  37  c/».  Breadth,  \$  in.,  or  2.2  cm. 

1.  Prepare  the   wood  as  in  previous   exercises. 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles  with  try- 
plane.      Gauge  breadth  and  thickness  and  plane 
down. 

3.  Draw    outline    according    to    the    drawing. 
With  the  knife  proceed  to  finish  the  surface  adja- 
cent to  the  recess,  a  sufficient  length  to  allow  the 
remaining  surface  to  be  finished  with  a  try-plane 
(obstacle  planing). 

4.  Finish   the    recess    and   the  projection  piece 
with  tenon  saw,  chisel,  and  knife. 

5.  Finish  the  depressions  in  the  lower  surface 
with  tenon  saw,  chisel,  and   knife,   having  meas- 
ured their  position  by  compass,  square,  and  gauge. 

6.  Measure    the    length    and    saw    off  at   right 
angles   with    tenon  saw.     Smooth  the   ends  with 
chisel. 

7.  Smooth  entire  model  with  file  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  pla/ning, 
8 


116  N&A8  MODEL  SERIES 

edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  obstacle  planing, 
perpendicular  chiseling,  long  cut,  cross  cut,  oblique 
cut,  bevel  cut,  filing,  scraping. 


Model  No.  XII.  (b). 
Part  of  an  Ox-bow1  of  W.  B. 

W  < 1.1.:} 


1  inch  J.cm. 

The  measurements  as  given  on  the  drawing  are  to  be  doubled  in  making  each  piece  or 

the  model. 

length,  23fg  in.,  or  60  cin.  Breadth,  2T8B  in.,  or  6.35  cm. 

1.  Prepare  the  wood  as  in  previous  exercises. 

2.  Plane   face   and   edge   at  right   angles  with 
try-plane. 

3.  Gauge  breadth  and  thickness.     Plane  down. 

4.  Draw  outlines  as  in  drawing  with  compass, 
square,  and  marking  gauge.     Bring  out  the  form 
with   rip  saw,    smoothing-plane,    knife,    compass 
saw,  and  chisel. 

5.  Mark   the   position  of  the  hole.     Bore  with 
center-bit  from  both  sides. 


The  Swedish  ox-bow  consists  of  two  pieces  of  wood  such 
the  model,  which   are  fastened  together 
dn.     This  is  unlike  the  American  ox-bo\ 
one  piece  bent  in  the  form  of  the  letter  U . 


as  the  model,  which  are  fastened  together  with  a  thin  iron 
chain.     This  is  unlike  the  American  ox-bow,  which  is  made  of 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES 


117 


6.  Measure  the  length  and  saw  off  with  tenon 
saw. 

7.  Finish  the  edges  and  ends  with   chisel,  file, 
and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing ,  face  planing , 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gaugivig,  obstacle  planing, 
convex  sawing,  perpendicular  chiseling,  boring  with 
center-bit,  convex  cut,  cross  cut,  bevel  cut,  filing,  scrap- 
ing. 

Model  No.  XIII. 
Small   Bowl   of  W.  B. 

Geometrical  Construction. 


1. 


1  inch 


2. 


1  cm. 


Length,  3 ft  in. ,  or  9  cm.  Breadth,  2ft  in. ,  or  5.5  cm. 

1.  Remove  from  block  as  in  previous  exercises. 


118  NAA8  MODEL  SERIES 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles  with  try- 
plane. 

3.  Gauge  thickness  and  plane  down. 

4.  Draw  outlines  on  two  opposite  sides,  accord- 
ing   to    geometrical    construction    (2),   with   try- 
square  and  compass. 

5.  Saw  off  with  frame  compass  saw,1  and  chisel 
close  to  the  line. 

6.  Smooth  with  file. 

7.  Proceed  to  hollow  out  as  indicated  by  draw- 
ing, with  gouge  and  mallet,  and  finish  with  spoon- 
iron  or  spoon-gouge.     ^ 

8.  Smooth  the  inside   surface  with  sand-paper. 

9.  Form  the  outside  surface  with  *  chisel,  knife, 
and  file. 

10.  Use  the  scraper  for  smoothing  all  the  sur- 
faces. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  convex  saw- 
ing, perpendicular  chiseling,  filing,  gouging  with 
gouge  and  spoon-iron,  oblique  chiseling,  convex  cut, 
scraping. 

1  All  Swedish  hand  saws  are  frame  saws,  except  the  tenon, 
keyhole,  and  grooving  saws.  The  latter  are  small  saws.  The 
Swedes  prefer  the  frame  saws  to  either  our  large  rip  or  our 
cross-cut  saws,  claiming  that  the  weight  of  the  frame  makes 
the  sawing  to  a  straight  line  easier.  Their  dexterity  in  han- 
dling these  saws  is  quite  remarkable. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  119 

Model  No.  XIV. 
Hammer  Handle  of  W.  B. 


c 


1  inch 

OJ 

l.cm. 
Length,  ll}g  in.,  or  30  cm.  Breadth,  1&  in.,  or  3.2  cm. 

1.  Remove  from  block. 

2.  Plane  face   and   edge   at   right   angles    with 
try-plane. 

3.  Draw  outlines  on  opposite  sides. 

4.  Saw  nearly  to  these  lines  with  broad  frame 
compass  saw,  and  finish  to  the  lines  with  spoke- 
shave. 

5.  Cut  away  the  corners  with  knife,  and  finish 
to  elliptical  form  with  spokeshave. 

6.  Measure  the  length,  and  saw  off  with  back 
saw. 

7.  Finish   with    knife.     Smooth    with    file   and 
scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing,  squaring,  wave  sawing,  smoothing 
with  spokeshave,  bevel  cut,  modeling  with  spokeshave, 
cross  cut,  filing,  scraping. 


120 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


Model  No.  XV. 
Spoon  of  W.  B. 


1  inch          1  cm. 


Geometrical  Construction 

I 


1  inch         1  cm. 


2. 


Length,  8j88  in.,  or  21.5  cm. 


Breadth,  2iY,  in-,  or  5.2  cm. 


1.  Prepare  wood  as  in  previous  exercises. 

2.  Cut   awa}^  with   a  small   hand  ax,  so  as  to 
obtain  approximate  width  and  thickness. 

3.  Plane  face  and  edge   at    right    angles  with 
jack  and   try-plane.     Gauge   a   little   beyond  the 
required  width  and  plane  down. 

4.  On  each  edge  draw  the  outline  of  the  upper 
side  of  the  spoon,  as  indicated  in  second  drawing 


FUNDAMENTAL  8ERIE8  121 

(side;  view  of  spoon),  by  means  of  try-square  and 
compass. 

5.  Saw  off  with  rip  and  compass  saw.     Smooth 
with  chisel  and  file. 

6.  Draw  on  the  surface  thus  obtained  an  out- 
line of  the  upper  surface  of  the  model,  according 
to  geometrical  construction  drawing  (2),  with  try- 
square  and  compass. 

7.  Bring  out    the  form  of   the   sides  with  cen- 
ter-bit1 and   compass   saw.      Smooth  with  chisel 
and  file. 

8.  The  hollow  is  made  as  in  No.  XIII.  7. 

9.  Draw   outline   of  the   lower   surface  of  the 
model. 

10.  Saw  out  with  compass  saw. 

11.  Finish    the    entire   model   with    knife  and 
smooth  with  file  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  chopping,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  oblique  sawing, 
wave  saiving,  oblique  chiseling,  boring  with  center-bit, 
convex  sawing,  perpendicular  chiseling,  filing,  goug- 
ing with  gouge  and  spoon-iron,  convex  cut,  concave 
cut,  long  cut,  scraping. 

1  In  bringing  out  the  form  of  the  sides  with  the  center-bit, 
it  is  best  to  bore  from  both  sides.  The  opening  will  then  be 
cleaner.  This  will  also  prevent  splitting  on  the  lower  side. 


122  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

Model  No.  XVI. 
Chopping   Board  of  W.  W. 


-17JS- 


linch  .1cm, 

Length,  Yi\\  in.,  or  45.1  cm.  Breadth,  5J{j  in.,  or  15.1  cm. 

1.  Prepare  the  wood  as  in  former  exercises. 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles  with  jack 
and  try-plane.     Gauge  breadth  and  plane  down. 

3.  Draw  outline  of  the  ends  with  square  and 
compass.     Bore  the  hole  with  center-bit. 

4.  Saw  off  the  ends  with  back   cross-cut   and 
frame  compass  saw.     Smooth  the  ends  with  chisel, 
smoothing-plane,  and  file.     Gauge  the  thickness, 
and  plane  down  with  jack  and  try-plane. 

5.  Smooth  the  sides  and  edges  with  smoothing- 
plane.     Finish  the  edges  and  ends  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  face  planing,  edge  plan- 
ing, squaring,  gauging,  boring  with  center-bit,  convex 
sawing,  perpendicular  chiseling,  end  planing,  filing, 
smoothing  up,  scraping. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  123 

Model  No.  XVII. 
Flower-pot  Cross   of  W.  W. 


1  inch  1  cm. 

Length,  5$,  ?/?.,  or  13  cm,.  Breadth,  1  ?w.,  or  2.5  <?m. 

1.  Saw  from  block  a  piece  of  sufficient  length 
for  the  two  parts  of  the  model. 

2.  Plane  face   and    edge  at  right   angles   with 
jack  and  try-plane.      Gauge   breadth  and  thick- 
ness, and  plane  down  with  try-plane.     Saw   into 
two  parts  of  equal  length. 

3.  Lay    out   outline  on  these    parts  with  com- 
pass, try-square,  and  gauge.     Draw  the  recess  on 
one  piece   at  the  top,  as   shown  by  full  lines  of 
the  drawing  ;  and  on  the  other,   at    the    bottom, 
as  shown    by   dotted  lines,   so  that  they   can    be 
joined  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 

4.  Lay   out  outline  of  curved   corners  and   of 
feet.     Cut  recesses,  form  of  feet,  and  curved  cor- 
ners with  knife.     Fit  together. 

Exercises.  —  Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  edge  plan- 
ing, squaring,  ganging,  cross  cut,  long  cut,  convex 
cut,  fling,  halving  with  knife. 


124 


NAAS  MODEL   SERIES 


Model  No.  XVIII. 
Scythe  Sharpener  of  R.  O. 


I  inch 


1cm. 


Length,  20  in.,  or  51  cm.; 
o?"  22  in.,  or  5fi  cm. 


Breadth,  lf«i 

or  \£  in.,  or  2.2  cm. 


1.  Prepare  wood  as  in  former  exercises.     Plane 
face   and    edge   at  right    angles    with    try-plane. 
Gauge  thickness  and  plane  down. 

2.  Lay  out  the  outline  of  the  blade  with  square, 
rule,   and    compass.      Shape   with    rip  saw,  jack- 
plane,  spokeshave,  knife,  and  file.1 

3.  Outline    handle 2  witli  square   and   compass, 
and    make   same    with    compass   saw,    knife,   and 
spokeshave. 

4.  Measure  the  length,  and  saw  off  with  tenon 
saw. 

1  The  three  files  used  in  the  Sloyd  work  arc  the  flat,  the 
half-round,  and  the  round  file.     The  flat  is  used  on  plane 
surfaces,  the  half-round  on  plane  and  curved  surfaces,  and 
the  full  round  in  holes  or  curved  openings. 

2  In  making  the  handle,  a  center  line  may  be  drawn,  and  a 
cardboard  templet  may  be  employed.     Templets  are  not  used 
in  the  Naiis  method. 


FUNDAMENTAL   SERIES 


125 


5.  Smooth  the  handle  with  flat  file  and  scraper, 
and  the  edges  of  the  blade  with  file. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  obstacle  planing, 
smoothing  with  spokeshave,  wave  sawing,  modeling 
with  spoTceshave,  concave  cut,  convex  cut,  cross  cut, 
oblique  cut,  filing,  scraping,  working  in  hard  wood. 


Model   No.  XIX. 
Scoop  of  B. 


Geometrical  Construction. 


1  inch 


1  cm. 
2. 


Length,  Q&  in  ,  or  24cm.  Breadth,  2{§  in. ,  or  7  cm. 

1.  Prepare     wood    as    before.       Reduce   it   to 


126  NAAS  MODEL   SERIES 

approximate  size  with  ,hand  ax.     Plane  face  and 
edge  at   right   angles  with  jack  and  try -plane. 

2.  Construct  diagram  of  model  as  in  drawing 
1   (a)   with  try-square  and  compass. 

3.  Make    the    form    with    center-bit,    rip    saw, 
and   frame   compass  saw.     Smooth  with  smooth- 
ing-plane  and  chisel. 

4.  Construct  diagram  as  in  drawing  1  (b).     Saw 
with  rip  and  compass  saw  to  bring  out  the  form. 
Smooth  with   smoothing-plane  and  chisel. 

5.  The   hollow   is   outlined  with  compass  and 
gauge,  and  is  made  with  gouge,  mallet,  spoon-iron 
or  spoon-gouge,  file,  and  scraper. 

6.  Produce   the   form  of  the   lower   surface  of 
the  model  with  hand  ax,1  smoothing-plane,  and 
knife.     Smooth   the   entire  model  with   file   and 
scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  chopping,  face  planing, 
squaring,  boring  with  center-bit,  long  sawing,  convex 
sawing,  perpendicular  chiseling,  oblique  sawing, 
oblique  planing  (tapering) ,  oblique  chiseling,  gouging 
with  gouge  and  spoon-iron,  filing,  modeling  with 
plane,  convex  cut,  concave  cut,  cross  cut,  scraping. 

1  The  hand  ax  is  a  tool  not  used  by  us  for  this  purpose. 
We  would  take  a  chisel  instead ;  but  the  correct  use  of  the 
hand  ax  is  very  important,  and  it  will  be  found  advisable  not 
to  substitute  the  chisel  for  it  in  the  Sloyd  work. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES 


Model  No.  XX. 
Clothes   Rack  of  W.  W. 


1  inch 
1cm. 


Length,  15J-g  in.,  or  40  cm.  Breadth,  3T2e  in.,  or 8 cm. 

1.  Saw  out  a  suitable   piece   of  wood   for    the 
flat  portion  of  the  model. 

2.  Plane    face   and    edge    at  right  angles   with 
jack   and   try-plane.       Gauge  breadth    and  plane 
down. 

3.  Draw  a  center  line  the  whole  length  of  this 
piece,  on  which  locate  the  position  of  the  three 
holes  for  the  pegs  to  be  fitted  in,  and  also  locate 
the  centers  for  the  semicircular  ends. 

4.  With    center-bit,  carefully  bore   these   holes 
at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of  the  plate. 

5.  Outline  diagram  of  the  flat  portion  or  plate 
of  the   model   as   in   drawing    (a).      Shape   with 
frame  compass  saw,  chisel,  and  file.     Gauge  thick- 
ness, and  plane  down  with  try-plane. 

6.  Measure  the  required  width  of  the  chamfers, 
and  mark  same  with  gauge.     Chamfer  with  try- 
plane,   knife,  file,  and   scraper. 


128  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

7.  Plane  the  wood  for    the  pegs  in  one  piece 
with  try-plane.     Gauge  width  and  thickness  and 
plane   down.     Measure   the   length   of    each   peg 
about    half  an    inch    longer    than   the   required 
length,  and  saw  off  at   right  angles  with  tenon 
saw. 

8.  Draw   diagonals   on   one  end   of    each    peg. 
With  the  same  center-bit  *  with  which  the  holes 
in  the  plate  of  the  model  were  bored,  and  with 
the  intersection  of  each  two  of  these  diagonals  as 
a  center,  describe  a  circumference. 

9.  Draw  outline  of  each  peg  as  in  drawing  (6), 
measuring  the  exact  length  from  the  semicircu- 
lar  end   of  each   peg  to  the   shoulder,   so   as   to 
give  the  extra  half-inch  to  the  length  of  the  peg 
that   is  to  project  through  the  plate. 

10.  Make    the    pegs    with    tenon    saw,    chisel, 
knife,  and   file.      Glue   the   pegs   in   position    as 
indicated    in   the   drawing,   so    that   they  are  at 
right  angles  to  the  plate,  being  careful  that  the 
hook  in  each  peg-head  is  nearest  to  the  top  edge 
of  the  plate. 

11.  Dress  off  the  ends  of  the  pegs  that  project 
through   the  rear   of  the   plate   with    chisel   and 
smoothing-plane. 

1  A  compass  may  also  be  used  for  this  purpose. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  121) 

12.  Take  a  small  piece  of  flat  iron  suitable  for 
the  hangers.     Fold  same  together  at  the  middle. 
File  the   ends   into   the   shape   indicated  by  the 
drawing.     Make  the  holes  with  stamp  and  ham- 
mer.    Fasten  in  position  with  wood-screws. 

13.  Smooth  the  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. —  Rawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  boring  with 
center -bit,  convex  sawing,  perpendicular  chiseling, 
filing,  oblique  leveling,  bevel  cut,  cross  cut,  convex 
cut,  fitting  in  pegs,  smoothing  up,  oblique  chiseling, 
gluing,  sinking  iron  plates,  scraping. 

Model  No.  XXI. 
Flower-pot  Stand  of  W.  W. 


JEP  rn  raa  BBi  |j 

H £=2=3 1 

i'inch 

1cm. 

Length,  15J  g  in.,  or  40  cm.  Breadth,  4T85  in.,  or  11  cm. 

1.  Saw  off  from  board  a  suitable  piece  for  the 
strips. 

2.  Plane   face   and   edge  at   right   angles   with 
jack  and  try-plane. 

3.  Gauge  thickness  and  plane  down. 


130  JVAAS  MODEL   SERIES 

4.  Measure  the  length,  and  saw  off  with  tenon 
saw.      Smooth  the  ends  in   shooting-board    with 
try-plane. 

5.  Mark  the  width  of  each  strip  at  each  end, 
and  connect  the  points  obtained  with    penciled 
lines,  leaving  sufficient  space  between    the   lines 
to  saw  and  dress. 

6.  Saw  out  the  strips  with  rip  saw,  and  plane 
to  required  width  with  try-plane. 

7.  Saw  out  a  suitable  piece  of  wood  sufficient 
for  the  two  legs.     Plane  face  and  edge  at  right 
angles  with  try-plane. 

8.  Gauge    breadth    and    thickness    and    plane 
down.     Saw  in  two  equal  parts  with  tenon  saw. 

9.  Screw  the  two  pieces  in  the  vise,  and  smooth 
the  ends  with  smoothing-plane. 

10.  Draw   outline    of    legs  with    compass,   try- 
square,  and  gauge,  and  work  the  pieces   to   the 
lines  with  tenon  saw,   chisel,   knife,  and   file. 

11.  Nail  down  the  strips  at  right  angles  to  the 
legs  with   suitable   brad-head    nails.      Drive    the 
nails  below  the  surface  of  the  wood  with  nail-set 
and  hammer.1 


1  Wherever  it  is  possible,  each  nail  should  be  driven  into 
the  wood  in  a  slightly  inclined  direction,  and  always  in  the 
opposite  direction  to  that  in  which  the  preceding  nail  has  been 
driven  in.  This  will  make  the  work  hold  together  better. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  131 

12.  Smooth  the  ends  of  the  strips  with  file, 
and  the  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  end  planing, 
cross  sawing  with  tenon-saw,  cross  cut,  long  cut, 
filing,  nailing,  punching  nails,  smoothing  up. 


Model  No.  XXII. 


Ax  Handle   of  W.  B. 


-281-S- 


1  inch 

UJ 

1cm. 
Lcntjlh,  28j|  in.,  or  73  cm.  Breadth,  2&  in.,  or  6  cm- 

1.  Saw  off  from  block  with  rip  and  cross-cut- 
saw.     Dress  to  approximate  thickness  with  hand 
ax.     Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles  with  jack 
and  try-plane.    Gauge  thickness  and  plane  down. 

2.  Outline  diagram  as  in  drawing  and  saw  off 
with  rip  and  frame  compass  saw. 

3.  Cut  the  edges  with  drawing-knife. 

4.  Shape  with  smoothing-plane,  spokeshave,  and 
knife.      Measure    the    length,    and    saw    off    with 
cross-cut  saw.     Smooth   with   file  and  scraper. 


132 


NAA8  MODEL   SERIES 


Exercises. —  'Sawing  off,  chopping,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  long  sawing, 
convex  sawing,  beveling  with  draw-knife,  modeling 
with  plane,  modeling  with  spokeshave,  oblique  plan- 
ing, concave  cut,  bevel  cut,  filing,  scraping. 


Model  No.  XXIII. 
Footstool  of  W.  W. 


1  inch        1  cm. 


I. 


Geometrical  Construction. 


2. 


Length,  10[g in.,  or  27  cm. 


Breadth,  8}g  in.,  or  i22  cw. 


1.  Make   the   strips    in    the  '  same    way   as    in 
Model  No.  XXI.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  133 

2.  Saw   out  from   board    a   piece   of    sufficient 
length  for  the  two  legs. 

3.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles  with  jack 
and  try-plane. 

4.  Gauge  the  breadth  and  plane  down. 

5.  Saw  at  right   angles   into    two    equal   parts 
with  tenon  saw. 

6.  Nail   the  two   parts  together.      Smooth   the 
ends  with   smoothing-plane. 

7.  Outline  diagram  as  in  geometrical  construc- 
tion   (drawing    on    both    sides)    with    try-square 
and  compass. 

8.  Bring  out  the  form  with  tenon  saw,  compass 
saw,  chisel,  center-bit,  gouge  and  file. 

9.  Take  the  legs  apart,  gauge  the  thickness  of 
each,  and  plane  down  with  jack  and  try-plane. 

10.  Nail   down    the    strips,    driving   the   nails 
below  the  surface  of  the  wood  with  nail-set  and 
hammer. 

11.  Smooth   the   ends  of  the   strips    with    file, 
and  the  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  end  planing,  convex 
sawing,  perpendicular  gouging,  oblique  sawing, 
oblique  chiseling,  boring  with  center-bit,  filing,  smooth- 
ing up,  nailing,  punching  in  nails. 


134 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


Model  No.  XXIV. 
Barrel  Cover  of  W.  W. 


1  inch 


1  cm. 


Diameter,  13T6g  in.,  or  34  cm. 

1.  Saw  off  from  block  with  rip  and  cross-cut 
saw  two  pieces  of  equal   size,   which,  when   put 
together   and    dressed,   will   form   the   completed 
disk.1 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  of  each  piece  at  right 

1  The  disk  may  be  made  either  of  two  or  of  three  pieces 
glued  together,  as  may  be  found  preferable. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  135 

angles,  taking  especial  care  to  plane  the  edges 
very  smooth,  as  the  pieces  are  now  to  be  glued 
together.  While  drying,  clamp  these  pieces  in 
the  vise  or  otherwise.1 

3.  After  the  glue  has  dried,  dress  off  the  entire 
surface  to  a  true  plane. 

4.  Outline   diagram  as  in  drawing   1   (a)  with 
compass  and  rule. 

5.  Lay   out   the    position   of    the   grooving   in 
which  the  dovetailed  tongue  is  to  be  fitted  with 
try-square,    compass,    rule,    and    marking     awl. 2 
Gauge  the  depth  of  the  grooving.     Remove  so  as 
to  produce    the  groove,  using   knife,  tenon  saw, 
chisel,  and  router. 

6.  Make   the  dovetailed   tongue,  being   careful 
to  plane  same  to  a  width  which  is  to  be  a  little 
more  than  the  width  of  the  groove.     The  sides 
of  the    tongue  incline  in   the   form  of  a  wedge, 
and  its  depth  in  the  form  of  a  dovetail. 

7.  Fit  the  tongue  into   the  groove  and  glue  it 
tightly  in  position.      Plane  down   the  projecting 
surface   of  the  tongue    flush    with  the  surface  of 
the  disk. 


1  It  requires  three  to  four  hours  for  the  glue  to  harden. 

2  The  ohject  of  this  dovetailed  tongue  is  to  make  the  cover 
stronger,  and  to  prevent  it  from  warping.     The  grooving  is 
laid  out  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  grain  of  the  wood. 


130  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

8.  Gauge  the  thickness  of  the  disk  and    plane 
down  with  jack  and  try-plane. 

9.  The  circular  form  is  made  with  frame  com- 
pass saw.     Smooth  the  edge   and    bring  out  the 
form  with  spokeshave  and   file. 

10.  Smooth  the  sides  with  smoothing-plane. 

11.  Saw  out  with  rip  saw  a  small  piece  of  white 
birch    suitable    for    the   handle.      Gauge   the  re- 
quired  breadth    and   thickness,  and  plane   down 
with  try-plane. 

12.  Outline  diagram  of  the  handle  as  in  geo- 
metrical   construction     (2)    with    try-square   and 
compass. 

13.  Bring    out   the    form  with  rip  saw,  chisel, 
smoothing-plane,  knife,  file,  and  scraper. 

14.  As   shown    in    drawing,  the    holes   for   the 
screws   are   to   be   bored  at  a  slight    inclination, 
with  a  suitable  bit.     Screw  the  handle  in  place. 

15.  Finish  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  face  planing,  plane  joint- 
ing, squaring,  gluing,  dovetail  damping,  gauging, 
circular  sawing,  smoothing  with  spokeshave,  modeling 
with  spokeshave,  filing,  long  sawing,  convex  sawing, 
perpendicular  chiseling,  concave  chiseling,  modeling 
with  plane,  long  cut,  bevel  cut,  boring  with  shell-bit, 
scraping,  fixing  with  screws. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  137 


Model  No.  XXV. 


Box  of  W. 

W. 

i 
1 

jr 

j- 

:  1             1               1- 

P 
1             II            1 

i    |  | 

'    I  IZU  JL^.  ...  1  •• 

«-.                           9,V       .-  -.-- 

I,!, i.i  1 1  i  i  i 

1  inch  1  cm. 

Length,  9j*ff  in.,  or  23  cm.  Breadth,  5j2s  in.,  or  13  cm. 

1.  Saw  out  with   rip  saw   two   pieces,  each    of 
sufficient  length  to  make  one  long  and  one  short 
side. 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  of  each  at  right  angles 
with  try-plane.     Gauge  width  and  thickness  and 
plane  down. 

3.  Measure  the  length    of  each  side  and    each 
end    with   ruler   and    try-square,  and    saw   off  at 
right  angles  with    tenon-saw. 

4.  Smooth  the  ends  of  each  of  the  four  pieces 
in  shooting-board  with  try-plane. 

5.  Nail    the    parts   together    with    brad    nails, 
having  bored   holes    with   brad-awl.       Drive   the 
nails  below  the  surface,  using  a  nail-set  and  ham- 
mer. 

6.  Smooth    the   lower   edges   of   the   sides  and 
ends  with  smoothing-plane. 


138  NAA8  MODEL  SERIES 

7.  Saw  out  a  suitable  piece  for  the  bottom  of 
the  box. 

8.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles. 

9.  Gauge     width    and     thickness,    and     plane 
down. 

10.  With  rule  and  try-square,  lay  off  the  length 
one   fourth  of  an    inch    longer  than  the  finished 
length. 

11.  Saw  off  at  right  angles  with  tenon  saw. 

12.  Nail  down  the  bottom    of  the   box,   being 
careful  that  the  box  is  square  before  completing 
the  nailing.1 

13.  Smooth   the  entire  model  with  smoothing- 
plane  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing ',  face  planing ', 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  planing  with  shoot- 
ing-board, nailing,  punching  in  nails,  smoothing  up, 
scraping. 

1  In  nailing  it  is  well  to  drive  in  the  nails  at  the  opposite 
ends  first,  and  those  in  between  afterwards.  This,  in  a  meas- 
ure, prevents  the  piece  from  slipping  out  of  position  while 
fastening  the  parts  together. 

The  nails  which  are  used  in  the  Sloyd  work  are  thin  brad 
nails  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long.  The  common  cut  nails 
would  not  do  as  well  for  this  work,  because  it  is  frequently 
necessary  to  drive  nails  into  very  thin  material,  which  would 
be  apt  to  split  if  rectangular  nails  were  used.  If  brad  nails 
cannot  be  obtained,  the  heads  of  other  round  nails  should  be 
flattened  with  a  hammer. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES 


139 


Model   No.   XXVI. 
Ladle  of  W.  B. 


Geometrical  Construction. 


1  inch 


1cm. 


Length,  13^  in.,  or  34  cm. 


2. 


Breadth,  3ffi  in.,  or  8.6  cm. 


1.  Saw  off  a  suitable    piece  of  wood    from  the 
block.     Cut    it    with    hand    ax    to    approximate 
thickness. 

2.  Plane  face    and   edge    at  right    angles    with 
try-plane. 

3.  Gauge  the    breadth  one  fourth    of    an    inch 
more  than  the  required   dimension.     Plane  down 
with  try-plane. 


140  JfAAS  MODEL   SERIES 

4.  Construct  on  both  side   surfaces   an  outline 
of  the  upper  surface  of  the  model,  as  shown  in 
upper  part  of  drawing  1    (b).     Saw  out  with   rip 
and    frame  compass  saw.      Smooth  with  smooth- 
ing-plane  and  chisel. 

5.  Outline  diagram  as  in  geometrical  construc- 
tion   (2),  with  rule   and  compass. 

6.  Bring  out  the  form  with  center-bit,  rip  and 
compass  saw. 

7.  Smooth  with  chisel  and  file. 

8.  The   hollow   is    made    with    gouge,    mallet, 
spoon-iron    or    spoon-gouge,    scraper,    and    sand- 
paper. 

9.  Construct  outline  of  the  lower  surface  as  in 
drawing  1   (b). 

10.  Bring  out    the    form    with    drawing-knife, 
spokeshave,  and  knife. 

11.  Smooth    the    entire    model    with    file    and 
scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  chopping,  face  planing, 
squaring,  gauging,  oblique  sawing,  convex  sawing, 
oblique  planing,  oblique  chiseling,  boring  with  center- 
bit,  perpendicular  chiseling,  gouging  with,  gouge  and 
spoon-iron,  wave  sawing,  modeling  with  draw-knife, 
modeling  with  spokeshave,  long  cut,  convex  cut,  concave 
cut,  filing,  scraping. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES 


141 


Model   No.   XXVII. 
Baker's  Shovel  of  W.  W.  or  Pine. 


1  inch      1  cm. 


length,  18M  in . ,  or  48  cm.  Breadth,  13 ft  in.,  or  34  cm. 

1.  Proceed  as  in  Model  No.  XXIV.  1,  2,  3. 

2.  Outline  diagram  as  in  above  drawing. 

3.  Proceed  as  in  Model  No.  XXIV.  5,  6,  7,  8. 
The  form  is  made  with  frame  compass  saw.     Bore 
the  hole  with  center-bit. 

4.  Plane  down  to  an  inclined  surface  with  try- 
plane    (square     planing    across    the   grain),    and 
afterward  with    smoothing-plane  (wedge   planing 
with  smoothing-plane). 

5.  Smooth    the    edges   with    spokeshave,  knife, 
and  file. 


142  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

6.  Smooth  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  chopping,  face  planing, 
plain  jointing,  squaring,  gluing,  wave  sawing,  dove- 
tail damping,  boring  with  center-bit,  gauging,  smooth- 
ing with  spokeshave,  concave  cut,  convex  cut,  square 
planing  across  the  grain,  wedge  planing  with  smooth- 
ing plane,  modeling  with  spokeshave,  filing,  scraping. 

Model  No.  XXVIII. 
Clothes-beater  of  W.  B.  or  Alder. 


.linch 


Length,  17}g  in.,  or  45  cm.  Rreadth,  3T2B  in.,  or  R  cm . 

1.  Prepare  wood  as  in  previous  exercises.     Dress 
to  approximate  thickness  with  hand  ax. 

2.  Plane   face  and   edge   at    right    angles   with 
jack   and  try-plane.       Gauge   breadth  and    plane 
down. 

3.  Outline  diagram  as  in  drawing  (b)  on  oppo- 
site edges.      Saw  out  nearly  to  these   lines   with 
frame  compass  saw. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  143 

4.  Plane  clown  the  concave  surface  with  com- 
pass  or  circular    plane,  and    the    convex   surface 
with  smoothing-plane. 

5.  Outline   diagram  .of    the    handle    with    try- 
square  and  compass.     Saw  out  with  compass  saw, 
and  shape  with  knife  and  spokeshave. 

6.  Measure   the  length,  and   saw   off    at   right 
angles   with    cross-cut   saw.      Smooth    the  broad 
end  surface  with  smoothing-plane  and  chisel. 

7.  Round  the  edges  with  spokeshave.     Smooth 
with  file  and  scraper. 

Exercises.-  —  Sawing  off,  chopping,  face  planing, 
squaring,  gauging,  convex  sawing,  planing  with  round 
plane,  smoothing  up,  concave  cut,  convex  cut,  end  plan- 
ing, modeling  with  spokeshave,  filing,  scraping. 


Model  No.  XXIX. 
Ruler  of  W.  B. 


J  inch  1  cm. 

Length,  17{jf  in.,  or  45  cm.  Bread! ft,  1  }g  in.,  or  4.4  cm. 

1.  Prepare     wood    as     in     previous     exercises. 


144  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

Plane   face  and   eojge   at   right   angles  with   try- 
plane. 

2.  Gauge  the  breadth  and   plane  down. 

3.  Mark   out   the    position  of    the    hole    with 
compass,  and  bore  same  with   center-bit.     Gauge 
the  thickness,  and  saw  off  with  rip  saw. 

4.  As  the  model  piece  is  now  too  thin  to  be 
held  in  the  iron  pins   of  the  bench,  it  must  be 
fixed  with  wooden  pegs  on  a  perfectly  level  foun- 
dation piece.      This  foundation  piece  is  to  be  at 
least   an    inch    broader    than    the    model    piece. 
The  model  piece  is  fixed  by  boring  with  a  pin-bit 
through   it  into  the    foundation   piece   about   an 
inch  on  each  side  beyond   the   required    length. 
Two  pegs  are  fitted  in  to  hold  the  model  piece  in 
position. 

5.  Plane   down    to    required    thickness.       The 
bevel  on  either  side  is  made  with  try-plane. 

6.  Measure   the    length   and   saw   off    at   right 
angles   with   tenon    saw.     Smooth  the  ends  with 
knife  and  file. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  boring  with  center- 
bit,  boring  with  shell-bit,  fixing  with  wooden  pegs  (for 
planing  thin  wood),  beveling  obliquely,  cross  cut, 
filing,  scraping. 


FUNDAMENTAL   SERIES 


145 


Model  No.  XXX. 
Bootjack  of  W.  B.  ;    Foot  of  W.  W. 


f -V-J-4- 


__X 3ft . 


1  inch  1  c«fc. 

1. 

Geometrical  Construction. 


-13TV 


1  inch 
Length,  13 &  in.,  or  34  cm. 


I  cm. 
2.  Breadth,  4-^  ira.,  or  10.8  c-m. 


1.  Saw  from  block  a  suitable  piece  of  wood 
with  rip  saw.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right 
angles  with  jack  and  try-plane. 


146  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

2.  Outline   diagram   as  in   drawing   No.   1    (a) 
with  try-square  and    compass.      Dimensions   are 
to  be   measured    from   a   center   line  drawn   the 
entire    length    of    the   wood.     Saw   out   with  rip 
and    compass   saw.       Gauge    the   thickness,  and 
plane  down  with  try-plane. 

3.  Smooth    the     edges    with    spokeshave    and 
chisel. 

4.  Saw  out  with  rip  saw  a  small  piece   of  W. 
W.  for  the  foot.     Plane    face  and   edge   at  right 
angles.     Gauge  thickness  and  plane  down. 

5.  Mark  out  the  position  of  the  grooving  with 
compass,     marking     awl,    try-square,    bevel,   and 
marking  gauge.       Remove    so    as    to    make   the 
groove  with  knife,  tenon  saw,  and  chisel. 

6.  Make   the   dovetailed    tongue    of    the    foot, 
using  marking  gauge,  bevel,  and  knife.     Fit  the 
foot  into  the  groove  and  glue  it  fast,  driving  it 
in  firmly. 

7.  Saw  off  with  tenon  saw  the  projecting  ends 
of    the    foot.      Smooth     with     smoothing-plane. 
Finish     the    edges    with     spokeshave,    file,    and 
scraper. 

8.  Lay  out  the  lines  on  each   edge,  indicating 
the  inclination  of  the  lower  surface  of  the   foot 
and  body  with  pencil  and  rule.     Finish  to  these 
lines  with  tenon  saw  and  smoothing-plane. 


FUNDAMENTAL   SERIES 


147 


9.  Round  the  corners  with  spokeshave,  knife, 
and  file.  Smooth  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  oblique  sawing,  convex  sawing, 
gauging,  smoothing  with  spokeshave,  concave  chiseling, 
straight  edge  grooving,  gluing,  end  planing,  oblique 
planing,  modeling  with  spokeshave,  concave  cut,  con- 
vex cut,  cross  cut,  filing,  scraping. 

Model    No.   XXXI. 


Lamp  Bracket  of  W.  W. 

Geometrical  Construction. 


a   k. 


.  1  inch 
Length,  9}$  i/?.,  or  25  cm. 


1  cm. 


1  inch.         1  cm. 


Breadth,  4\$  in.,  or  12  cm. 
2.. 


1.  Saw  out    a  piece  of   wood  of  sufficient  size 
for  the  back  and  bottom. 

each  at  right  angles. 
10 


Plane  face  and  edge  of 


148  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

2.  Gauge    breadth    and    thickness    and    plane 
down.     Measure  the  length  of  each,  and  saw  off 
with  tenon  saw. 

3.  Smooth   the  end  surfaces  in  shooting  board 
with  try-plane. 

4.  The  back  and  the  bottom  piece  are  now  to 
be  dovetailed  together.     Lay  out  the  mortises  on 
the  back  piece  as  in  drawing  1  (6),  using  compass, 
rule,  and    bevel.      Mark   out    the   depth   of    the 
mortises   equal   to    the    thickness   of    the   wood. 
Make   the   mortises   with  tenon  saw,  chisel,   and 
mallet. 

5.  Outline  diagram  of  the  tenons  on  the  bot- 
tom piece  by  tracing  each  mortise  on  one  of  the 
end  surfaces  of  the  bottom  piece  with  marking 
awl  or  knife. 

6.  Make    the    length   of    the   tenons   equal    to 
thickness  of  the   wood,  and  mark  this  out  with 
pencil  and  try-square. 

7.  Make  the  tenons  with  tenon  saw,  chisel,  and 
mallet. 

8.  Outline   diagram   of    the    back   piece   as   in 
geometrical   construction    (2),  with    compass  and 
try-square. 

9.  Saw   out   with  compass  saw.     Smooth    with 
knife  and  file. 

10.  Bore  the  holes  in  the  back  piece,  the  larger 


FUNDAMENTAL   SERIES  149 

one  with  center-bit,  and  the   smaller  with  brad- 
awl. 

11.  Measure  the  length  of  the  bottom,  and  saw 
off  with  tenon  saw.     Smooth  the  edges  in  shoot- 
ing-board. 

12.  Smooth  the  inner  surface  of  the  back  and 
bottom  with  smoothing-plane.     Carefully  fit  mor- 
tises, using  the  knife,  and  glue  the  back  and  bot- 
tom together. 

13.  Saw  out  in  one  length  the  three  side  pieces 
that   form   the   rim   of  the   box   of  the    bracket. 
Plane   face   and   edge    at    right   angles.      Gauge 
breadth  and  thickness  and  plane  down. 

14.  Saw  into   three   equal   parts.     Smooth   the 
ends  in  shooting-board. 

15.  Outline   diagram  of  each,  and  make   with 
knife.     Smooth  with  file.     Nail  down  to  the  back 
and  bottom. 

16.  Smooth     all     outer    surfaces    with     knife, 
smoothing-plane,  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  planing  in  shoot- 
ing-board,  common  dovetailing,  convex  sawing,  con- 
cave cut,  long  cut,  convex  cut,  cross  cut,  filing,  boring 
with  center-bit,  boring  with  brad-awl,  gluing,  nailing, 
punching  in  nails,  smoothing  up,  scraping. 


150 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


Model  No.  XXXII. 


Weaving  Shuttle  of  W.  B. 


1  inch 


1  cm. 


Length, 


.,  or  26  cm. 


Breadth,  1T°B  in.,  or  4  cm. 


1.  Saw  off  from  block  a  suitable  piece  of  wood 
somewhat   larger   than    the   model.      Plane    face 
and  edge  at  right  angles  with  try-plane. 

2.  Draw  outline  as  shown  in  drawing  (a).     Saw 
out  with  frame  compass  saw.     Smooth  the  edges 
with  spokeshave  and  chisel. 

3.  The  position  of  the  hollow  is  outlined  with 
compass.     The  hollow  is  made  with  outside  gouge 
and  mallet.     Smooth  with  sandpaper. 

4.  Gauge  thickness  and  plane  down  with  try- 
plane. 

5.  Outline  diagram  as  in  drawing  (/>)   on  both 
edges.     Saw  out  with  compass  saw,   and  smooth 
with  spokeshave  and  knife. 

6.  Make   the   axle   of    the   bobbin   with  knife. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  151 

Fit   same   into    the    hollow   with   brad-awl   and 
chisel. 

7.  Smooth  entire  model  with  file  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  convex  sawing,  smoothing  with 
spokeshave,  perpendicular  chiseling,  scooping  with 
outside  gouge,  gauging,  convex  cut,  long  cut,  boring 
with  brad-awl,  fitting  axle  (shuttle),  filing,  scraping. 


Model   No.  XXXIII. 
Knife  Box  of  W.  W. 


1  inch 


I       I 


1. 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


Geometrical  Construction. 


Linch  1  cm. 

Length,  Hf3  *n.,  or  50  cm.  2.  Jlr6adth,1fsin.tor\3cm. 

1.  Saw  out  with  rip  saw  two  pieces  of  wood, 
each  of  sufficient  length   for  one  long   and   one 
short  side  of  the  box.      Plane  face  and  edge  at 
right   angles.      Gauge   the   required    width    and 
thickness  and  plane  down.     Measure  the  length 
of  each  piece,  and  saw  off  at  right  angles  with 
tenon    saw.      Smooth    the    edges    and    ends    in 
shooting-board  with  try-plane. 

2.  Mark  out  the  position  of  the   grooving   in 
which  the  handle  is  to  fit  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  two  short  side  pieces,  with    compass,  try- 
square,  and   marking   gauge.      Make  the   groove 
with  knife  and  chisel. 

3.  Make    the    dovetailing    as    in    Model    No. 
XXXI.    4,  5,  6,  7.      After  smoothing   the    inner 
surfaces   of  the    four    parts,  glue   these  together. 


FUNDAMENTAL   SERIES  153 

4.  Saw   out   a   suitable    piece    for   the     handle. 
Plane   face   and    edge   at    right    angles.       Gauge 
breadth  and  thickness  and  plane  down. 

5.  Outline  diagram  of  handle  as  in  geometrical 
construction    (2),   with  try-square    and    compass. 
Make   the  handle  with    center-bit,   compass   saw, 
knife,   and  file.     Smooth   the   ends    in  shooting- 
board  with  try-plane. 

6.  Finish  the  outside  of  box  with   smoothing- 
plane. 

7.  Fit  the  handle  into  the   grooving    (housing 
or  square  grooving),  using   the   smoothing-plane 
and  knife. 

8.  Saw   out   a   suitable   piece    for   the   bottom. 
Plane    face    and    edge   at   right   angles.      Gauge 
breadth  and   thickness  and   plane   down.     Meas- 
ure the  length,  and  saw  off  at  right  angles  with 
tenon  saw. 

9.  Make   the   convex    edges    and   ends    of    the 
bottom   with  smoothing-plane  and   file. 

10.  Nail    down    the    bottom    with    brad    nails, 
driving  the  nails  below  the  surface  of  the  wood. 

11.  Smooth    the   entire   model    with    file    and 
scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  planing  in  shoot- 
,    coftimon    dovetailing,   housing  or   square 


154 


NAA8  MODKL  SERIES 


grooving,  gluing,  boring  with  center -bit,  wave  sawing, 
convex  cut,  concave  cut,  cross  cut,  long  cut,  filing,  plain 
jointing,  smoothing  up,  modeling  with  plane,  nailing, 
punching  in  nails,  scraping. 


Model   No.   XXXIV. 
American  Ax  Handle  of  R.  O. 


1  inch 


Length,  18H  in.,  or  48  cm. 


Breadth, 


.,  or  6.5  cm. 


1.  Saw   out    from    block    a   suitable    piece    of 
wood    with    rip    saw.       Plane    face    and    edge    at 
right  angles. 

2.  Outline  diagram  as  in   drawing   above,   and 
saw  out  with  frame  compass  saw. 

3.  Gauge  thickness  and  plane  down. 

4.  Round    the    edges   with    drawing-knife,   and 
shape  with  spokeshave. 

5.  Outline   diagram    of  the  end    surfaces,    and 
form    to  the   same,    using    drawing-knife,    spoke- 
shave,  and  smoothing-planc. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES 


155 


6.  Measure  length,  and  saw  off  at  right  angles 
with  tenon  saw.  Smooth  with  file  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  wave  sawing ,  face  planing , 
gauging,  smoothing  with  spokeshavc,  beveling  with 
draw-knife,  modeling  with  spokeshave,  modeling  with 
plane,  filing,  scraping,  working  in  hard  wood. 


Model   No.  XXXV. 
Match  Box  of  W.  B. 


Geometrical  Construction. 


I 


3  bu 


i  inch. 


I  cm. 
Lintjili ,  7 ,1j  in. ,  or  19  cm.  Breadth,  3,67T  *» • ,  o?1 8.5  c»i. 

1.  Saw  out  the  several  parts  with  rip  and  cross- 


156  NAA8  MODEL  SERIES 

cut  saw.  Plane  face  and  edge  of  each  at 
right  angles  with  try-plane.  Gauge  breadth  and 
thickness  of  each  part,  and  plane  down.  (The 
back  or  wall  piece  when  planed  down  is  ad- 
justed with  wooden  pegs  to  a  foundation  piece, 
as  in  Model  No.  XXIX.) 

2.  Outline  diagram  of  wall  piece  as  in  geomet- 
rical construction    (2)   with  try-square  and  com- 
pass.     Shape    same    with    knife.      Smooth    with 
file. 

3.  Bore  holes  with  center-bit  and  brad-awl. 

4.  Make    the    dovetailing    as    in    Model    No. 
XXXI. 

5.  After  the  lower  edges  of  the  box  have  been 
smoothed  with  file,  the  bottom  is  glued   fast,  and 
held  in  clamps  in  position  to  dry. 

6.  The     box     is     rounded     with     knife,     and 
smoothed  with  file  and  scraper.     Nail  down  the 
wall  piece. 

7.  A  piece  of  emery  or  fine  sandpaper  may  be 
glued  on  the  front  surface  of  the  wall  piece,  near 
the  lower  end,  as  indicated  by  the  lines  on  the 
drawing. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  ganging,  planing  with  round 
compass  plane,  boring  with  center-bit,  concave  cut, 


FUNDAMENTAL   SERIES 


long  cut,  cross  cut,  convex  cut,  filing,  planing  in 
shooting-board,  common  dovetailing,  gluing  with  use 
of  clamps,  nailing,  boring  with  brad-awl,  scraping. 


Model   No.   XXXVI. 
Baseball  Bat  of  W.  B. 


-31-iV 


.1  inch  1  cm. 

Length,  31 -&  in.,  or  80  cm.  Breadth,  lT3rt  in.  or  1&  in.  •  or  3  or  4  cm. 

1.  Saw  off  from  block  a  suitable  piece  of  wood. 
Plane    face   and    edge  at  right    angles  with    try- 
plane.     Gauge  thickness  and  plane  down. 

2.  Proceed  as  in  Model  No.  IX.  4,  making  the 
work  first  rectangular,  then  octagonal,  and  then 
sixteen  sided.     Round  with  try  and  smoothing- 
plane  (the  planing  to  be  done  from  the  lower  to 
the  upper  end). 

3.  Measure   the   length,    and    saw   off  at   right 
angles    with    tenon    saw.      Shape   the    ends  with 
knife. 

4.  Smooth  with  file  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
squaring,  gauging,  long  oblique  planing,  bevel  plan- 
ing, modeling  with  plane,  convex  cut,  filing,  scraping. 


158  NAA8  MODEL  SERIES 


Model   No.   XXXVII. 


Meter  Measure  of  W.  B. 


Length,  25Jg  in.,  or  65  cm.  Breadth,  \%  in.,  or  2.2  cm* 

1.  Prepare    wood     as    in     previous     exercises. 
Plane    face    and    edge    at   right   angles.      Gauge 
breadth  and  thickness,  and  plane  down. 

2.  Lay   out   on    each   end    the  finished    width, 
and  connect  these  points  by  lines  indicating  the 
taper.     Plane  down  to  these  lines  with  try-plane. 
Mark  out  the  divisions  with  compass,  try-square, 
and  brad-awl. 

3.  Measure   the    length,    and    saw    off  at    right 
angles  with  tenon  saw. 

4.  The   position  of  the  hole  is   laid  out   with 
compass  and  bored  with  center-bit. 

5.  Outline  diagram  of  handle,  and  shape  with 
chisel  and  knife.     Smooth  with  file  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  edge  planing, 


FUND  A  MENTA  L   SERIES 


150 


squaring,  gauging,  oblique  planing,  setting  out  (mark- 
ing division  lines  with  chisel),  boring  with  center-bit, 
cross  cut,  oblique  chiseling,  perpendicular  chiseling, 
long  cut,  convex  cut,  filing,  scraping. 


Model   No.  XXXVIII. 


Pen  Box  of  W.  B. 


1  inch 


1  cm. 


Length,  9r8s  in.,  or  24.1  cm. 


Breadth,  2j|  in.,  or  7  cm. 


1.  Regarding  the  planing  of  the  parts  and  the 
dovetailing,  refer  to  Model  No.  XXXIII. 

2.  The   groove   in    which    the    cover    slides   is 
made  with  gauge,  knife,  and  chisel. 

3.  Fit  the  cover  into  the  groove  with  smooth- 
ing-plane.     The  bottom  of  the  box  is  smoothed 
with   smoothing-plane   and   glued   down.      Hold 
in    clamps   or   hand   screws   until   the    glue    has 
hardened. 


160 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


4.  Smooth  the  outer  surfaces  with  smoothing- 
plane  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  out,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  planing  in  shoot- 
ing-board, common  dovetailing,  grooving  with  knife 
and  chisel,  gluing  with  use  of  clamps,  fixing  with 
wooden  pegs  (for  planing  thin  wood),  cross  cut, 
smoothing  up,  scraping. 


Model  No.  XXXIX. 


Stool  of  W.  W. 


16&- 


1. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES 

Geometrical  Construction. 


161 


2. 

Length,  16^  in.,  or  42  cm. 


1  inch  1  cm. 

3. 
Breadth,  8T48  in.,  or  21  cm. 


1.  Saw  out  the  parts  as  in  previous  exercises. 
Plane   face    and    edge   of   each    at   right   angles. 
Measure  breadth  of  each  and  plane  down.     Gauge 
thickness  of  each  and  plane  down. 

2.  Nail    together  with    two  nails  the  parts  in- 
tended for   the  legs    so  that  both  legs    may    be 
made  at  the  same  time. 

3.  Measure  the  length,  saw   off  with  cross-cut 
saw,  smooth    the  upper    ends    in    shooting-board 
with  try-plane. 

4.  Mark  out  the  angle   of    inclination    of   the 
legs  with  bevel    and  marking  gauge,  and    plane 
down  to  the  line  with   smoothing-plane. 

5.  Outline  diagram  of  the  legs  with  try-square 
and   compass,   and    bring    out    the    form     with 


162  HAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

center-bit,  compass  saw,  and  knife.     Smooth  with 
file. 

G.  Measure  the  length  of  the  top  piece,  and 
saw  off  at  right  angles  with  tenon  saw.  Smooth 
the  edges  with  smoothing-plane. 

7.  Mark  out  the  position  of  the    grooving  for 
the  legs  with    compass,  try-square,  marking  awl, 
bevel,   and  marking  gauge. 

8.  Make   the   grooving  with    knife,  tenon  saw, 
chisel,  and  rabbet-plane. 

9.  Draw  diagonals  on  the  upper  side  of  the  top 
piece,   in   order   to    find  its  center. 

10.  Lay  out  the    position  of  the  oval   opening 
in  the  top  piece,  and  make  same  with  center-bit, 
keyhole    saw,    knife,    and    file   (boring  two  holes 
with   center-bit,  and  sawing  between  these  holes 
with    keyhole   saw). 

11.  After   fitting   the    legs   carefully    into    the 
groove   with  knife,  glue  them  into  position. 

12.  Nail  together    the  two   pieces  intended  for 
the  sides. 

13.  Outline   diagram    as    in    geometrical    con- 
struction (2),  and  finish  to  these  lines  with  tenon 
saw,  frame  compass  saw,   smoothing-plane,  chisel, 
knife,  and  file. 

14.  Nail  down  the  side  pieces.     Drive  the  nails 
below  the  surface,  using  the  nail-set  and  hammer. 


FUNDAMENTAL   SERIES 


163 


15.  Smooth  the  top  and  side  surfaces  with  try- 
plane  and  smoothing-plane. 

16.  Smooth    all     other   surfaces    with    file  and 
scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  plain  jointing,  squaring,  gluing,  gaug- 
ing, end  planing,  oblique  planing ,  boring  with  center- 
bit,  convex  sawing,  convex  cut,  filing,  oblique  edge 
grooving,  sawing  with  keyhole  saw,  wave  sawing, 
concave  cut,  long  cut,  perpendicular  chiseling,  nail- 
ing, oblique  cut,  bevel  cut,  punching  in  nails,  smooth- 
ing up,  scraping. 

Model  No.  XL. 
Try-square  of  W.  B. 


*  —  're.  —                               > 

0 

r 

I 

fTt.it  i  ti  j                 |  1  1 

» 

linch          1cm. 

w. 

Lenyth,  9{g  in.,  or  25  cm- 


Breadth,  2  in.,  orb  on. 


1.  Saw    out   the    two    parts    (stock   and   blade) 
with  rip  and  cross-cut  saw.     Plane  face  and  edge 


11 


164  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

of    each    at    right   angles.      Gauge   breadth    and 
thickness  and  plane  down. 

2.  Smooth  one   end  of   the  stock  in  shooting- 
board   with  try-plane.     Mark   out  the  position  of 
the   open    mortise    for    the    blade    with   compass, 
try-square,   and    mortise    gauge.     Fit   the    stock 
and   blade    carefully    together.       Glue  and    hold 
in  clamps  or  hand  screws. 

3.  Smooth  all  outer   surfaces    with  smooth  ing- 
plane. 

4.  Measure    the    length,   and    saw  off   at    right 
angles  with  tenon  saw. 

5.  Smooth  the  end    surfaces  in   shooting-board 
with   try-plane.     Mark    out   the    position    of   the 
hole  with  compass  and  try-square;  bore  hole  with 
center-bit. 

6.  Smooth  Avith  scraper.1 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  planing  in  shoot- 
ing-board, slotting  (mortising  with  saw  and  chisel), 
gluing  with  use  of  clamps,  boring  with  center-bit, 
smoothing  up,  scraping,  working  in  hard  wood. 

1  In  making  this  model,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  th.it 
special  care  be  taken  to  work  down  to  exact  dimensions.  It 
is  necessary  that  the  try-square  be  made  absolutely  accurate, 
and  therefore  no  wood  should  be  used  which  has  not  been 
thoroughly  seasoned. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES 


105 


Model   No.  XLI. 
Plate  Rack  of  W.   W. 


] 


1  inch  1  cm. 


\l\l\lN\l\l\lxJ\l\l\l\l 


Geometrical  Construction. 


iinch  1cm. 

Length,  19|g  in.,  or  50cm.  2. 


Breadth,  6^  i«i.,  or  16  cm. 


166  NAA8  MODEL  SERIES 

1.  Saw  out  the  parts  for  the  sides  with  rip  saw. 

2.  Plane  face   and  edge    at    right   angles  with 
jack   and  try-plane.     Gauge    breadth    and  thick- 
ness and  plane  down.     Measure  the  length,  and 
saw  off  at  right  angles  with  tenon  saw.     Smooth 
the  ends  in  shooting-board  with  try-plane. 

3.  The  dovetailing   is   made   as  in   Model   No. 
XXXI.     Nail  the  two  long  sides  together.     Out- 
line  diagram    of    the  form   on    opposite  surfaces 
with    compass,     try-square,    and    gauge.       Bring 
out    the    form    with    frame  compass  saw,  gouge, 
spokeshave,  knife,  and  file.     Separate  the  parts. 

4.  Mark  out  the  position  of  the  notches  with 
compass,   try-square,   and    gauge,  and    cut    same 
with  tenon  saw  and  knife. 

5.  Smooth  the  inner  surfaces  with  smoothing- 
plane.     Glue  the  parts  together. 

6.  Saw   out  the  piece  for   the   bottom.      Plane 
face  and  edge  at  right  angles.     Measure  breadth, 
gauge  thickness,  and  plane  down. 

7.  Smooth  the   lower   edges   of  the    four   sides 
with   smoothing-plaiie.      Nail  down    the   bottom 
piece. 

8.  Smooth  all  the  outer  surfaces  with  try-plane 
and  smoothing-plane. 

9.  Saw  out  a  suitable  piece  for  the  four    feet. 
Plane    face   and    edge    at    right   angles.      Outline 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  167 

diagram  with   try-square  and  compass,  and  form 
with  chisel  and  gouge.     Nail  down. 

10.  Saw   off  a  suitable  piece  for  the  plate-rest. 
Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles. 

11.  Measure  breadth,  gauge  thickness,  and  plane 
down. 

12.  Saw  off  at   one   end  at   right   angles   with 
tenon    saw.        Smooth    in     shooting-board     with 
smoothing-plane.      Outline  diagram    of  plate-rest 
as  in  geometrical  construction  (2)  with  try-square 
and  compass. 

13.  Form  with  center-bit,  compass  saw,  smooth- 
ing-plane, chisel,  gouge,  and  file. 

14.  Mark  out  the  position  of  the  two  holes  in 
the  long  sides  in  which  nails  are  to  be  driven  to 
hold    the    plate-rest.      (These    nails    form    pivots 
upon    which   the  plate-rest  may  be  turned  down 
when  not  in  use.) 

15.  Bore  the  holes  with  brad-awl,  and  nail  the 
plate-rest  in  place. 

10.  Smooth  the  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  planing  in 
shooting -board,  dovetailing  in  thick  wood,  convex 
sawing,  smoothing  with  spolceshave,  perpendicular 
long  cut,  cross  sawing  with  tenon  saw, 


168 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


oblique  cut,  cross  cut,  smoothing  up,  gluing,  nailing, 
punching  in  nails,  mitering,  oblique  chiseling,  end 
planing,  boring  with  center-bit,  oblique  sawing,  oblique 
planing,  perpendicular  chiseling,  modeling  with  plane, 
oblique  gouging,  boring  with  brad-awl,  fitting  axle, 
scraping. 

Model  No.  XLII. 
Marking  Gauge  of  W.  B. 


linch 


3  b 


.f  cm. 


Length,  5i*ff  in.,  or  13  cm. 


Breadth,  1 13  in.,  or  4.5  cm . 


1.  Saw    out  the   several   parts  (head  or  stock, 
bar,  wedge,  and  key)1  with  rip  and  cross-cut  saw. 

1  The  marking  gauge  consists  of  four  parts.  The  stock  is 
the  handle.  The  bar  is  the  blade  which  moves  up  and  down 
in  the  stock.  The  wedge  holds  the  bar  in  position.  The  key 
is  a  smaller  wedge. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  1C9 

Plane  face  and  edge  of  each  at  right  angles. 
Gauge  the  breadth  and  thickness-  and  plane 
down. 

2.  Mark  the  position  of  the  mortise  with  com- 
pass, try-square,  and  marking  gauge/  and  make 
same  with  firmer-chisel  and  mallet. 

3.  Measure  the    length   of  the   head   or  stock, 
and  saw  off  with  tenon  saw.     Shape  its  ends  with 
chisel. 

4.  Fit   the   bar   into  the  mortise  with  smooth- 
ing-plane.      Measure    the  length   of   the  bar,  and 
saw  off  with  tenon  saw.     Shape  with  knife. 

5.  Make   the  wedge   and   the   key  with    tenon 
saw,  smoothing-plane,  chisel,  and  knife. 

6.  Smooth  all  the    parts  with  file  and  scraper, 
and  fit  together. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  mortising  (com- 
mon and  oblique),  perpendicular  chiseling,  smooth- 
ing up,  cross  cut,  long  cut,  convex  cut,  modeling  with 
plane,  filing,  scraping,  boring  with  brad-awl. 


1  In  American  shops  it  is  customary  to  place  the  gauge  in 
the  left  hand  and  push  it  forwards.  The  Swedes  use  either 
hand,  and  they  pull  the  gauge  toward  the  body,  or  push  it 
away  from  it,  as  happens  to  be  most  convenient  under  the 
circumstances. 


170 


NAA8  MODEL  SEH1EIS 


Model  No.  XLIII. 
Rake  Head  of  W.  B.  and  Alder  or  Ash. 


o     o      Q      Q      Q      o      o 

iV 


lirtch          1cm. 


Length,  23  jg  in.,  or  RO  cm. 


Bread f ft,  1  y>s  in.,  or  3  cm. 


1.  Saw  off  a  suitable  piece  for  the  curved  top 
and  plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles.     Out- 
line diagram  as  in  drawing  (o). 

2.  Saw  out  with  frame  saw,  and  finish   to  the 
lines   with    smooth  ing-plane,    spokeshave,    chisel, 
and  file. 

3.  Saw  from  block  a  suitable  piece  of  alder  or 
ash  for  the  handle.     Plane  face  and  edge  at  right 
nngles. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  171 

4.  Outline  diagram  with  try-square  and  com- 
pass,   and    shape    with    try-plane,    center-bit,   rip 
saw,  knife,  and  file. 

5.  Taper  with  jack  and  try-plane. 

6.  Outline  position  of  the  mortises  in  the   top 
piece   in    which  the   handle  is  to  be  fitted  with 
try-square,  bevel,  and  mortise   gauge,  and    make 
the  mortises  with  firmer-chisel   and  mallet.      Fit 
the  parts  together  with  chisel. 

7.  Measure   the  length  of  the  handle,  and  saw 
off  with  tenon  saw. 

8.  Draw  a  center  line  on  one  side  of  the  top 
piece,    and  mark    out  the  position   of    the   holes 
for   the   teeth  with  compass.     Bore  holes  with  a 
suitable  pin-bit.1 

9.  Gauge    the   thickness  and  plane  down  with 
try-plane. 

10.  Smooth  entire  model  with  file  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  convex  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, smoothing  up,  squaring,  smoothing  with  spoke- 
shave,  perpendicular  chiseling,  oblique  sawing,  oblique 
planing,  boring  with  center-bit,  long  cut,  gauging, 
mortising  (common  and  oblique^)  bevel  cut,  concave 
cut,  cross  cut,  boring  with  shell-bit,  filing,  scraping. 

1  In  order  to  make  the  openings  perfectly  smooth,  it  is  best 
to  bore  with  pin-bit  from  opposite  sides. 


NAAS  MODEL   SERIES 


Model  No.  XLIV. 
Picture  Frame  of  W.   B. 


D 


D 


— ift- 


Lenrfth.  12£g  ta.,  or  32 on. 


Breadth,  11  ?».,  or  28  cm. 


1.  Saw  out  the  several  parts  with  rip  and  cross- 
cut saw.  Plane  face  and  edge  of  each  at  right 
angles.  Gauge  breadth  and  thickness  and  plane 
down. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  173 

2.  Measure  the    length  of  the  pieces  intended 
for  the  four  sides.     Saw  off  at  right  angles   with 
tenon  saw.     Smooth  the  ends   in  shooting-board 
with  try-plane. 

3.  Mark  out  the  position  of  the  half-lap  joints 
with    try-square,    marking    awl,    and    gauge,  and 
make  same  with  tenon  saw  and  chisel   (halving 
with  saw  and  chisel). 

4.  Fit  the  parts  and  glue  together. 

5.  Smooth  on  outside  and  inside  surfaces  with 
smoothing-plane. 

G.  The  rabbet  on  the  rear  side  in  which  the 
picture  back  is  to  be  fitted  is  made  with  mark- 
ing gauge,  chisel,  and  knife. 

7.  Mark   out  the  position  of  the  graving  with 
compass,  try-square,  and  gauge.     Make  same  with 
V-tool  or  knife. 

8.  Make     the     hanger    with    smoothing-plane, 
center-bit,  and  chisel.     Make   a  groove  for  same 
with  tenon  saw  and  chisel.     Glue  in. 

9.  The  small  square  pyramids  which  ornament 
the  outer  surface  of  the  frame  are  made  in  one 
piece  with   try-plane.     Saw  off  to  required  length 
with  tenon  saw.     Smooth  ends  in  shooting-board 
and  shape  with  chisel.     Glue  down. 

10.  Smooth  the  ends  of  the  piece  intended  for 
the  picture  back  in  shooting-board  witli  try-plane. 


174 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


Fit  into  the  rabbet.      Smooth  entire  model  with 
scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing ,  face  planing , 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  planing  in  shoot- 
ing-board, halving  with  saw  and  chisel,  gluing, 
smoothing  up,  rabbeting,  plain  jointing,  fixing  with 
wooden  pegs,  oblique  chiseling,  graving  with  V-tool,  bor- 
ing with  center-bit,  cross  sawing  with  tenon  saw,  perpen- 
dicular chiseling,  cross  cut,  bevel  cut,  filing,  scraping. 

Model  No.  XLV. 
Tool   Rack  of  W.  W. 


O 

o 


O 


o 
o 

O 
o 
o 


/  inch 
1  cm . 


j 


-m- 


i . 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES 

Geometrical  Construction. 


175 


Length,  21  \1G  in.,  or  65  cm. 


2. 


Breadth,  11  in.,  or  28  cm. 


1.  Saw  out  all  the  parts  with  rip  and  cross-cut 
saw.     Mark  off  the  required  breadth,  gauge  the 
required  thickness  of  each,  and  plane  down  with 
jack  and  try-plane.     Measure  the  length  of  each, 
and  saw  off  at  right  angles  with  tenon  saw. 

2.  The  ends  of  the  pieces   that  are  to  be  dove- 


176  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

tailed  are   smoothed  in  shooting-board  with  try- 
plane. 

3.  Make  dovetailing  as   in   Model   No.  XXXI. 
(half  blind  dovetail  as  indicated  by  drawing). 

4.  Outline  diagram  of  the  back  with  try-square, 
compass,  meter  measure  or  rule,  and  gauge,  and 
finish  to  the  lines  with  frame  compass  saw,  center- 
bit,   smoothing-plane,    knife,    and    file.      Smooth 
the  ends  of  the  bottom  in  shooting-board. 

5.  Glue  the  several  parts  together. 

6.  Outline    diagram  of    the    front  of    the   box 
with  try-square,  compass,  and  gauge.     Bring  out 
the    form    with    compass,    knife,    and    file.      Fit 
together  the   sides  of    the  box    with    tenon  saw, 
chisel,  and   file.     Nail  down. 

7.  Smooth   all  outer  surfaces   with  smoothing- 
plane.     Outline  diagram  of  the  brackets — two  as 
in  geometrical  construction  No.  2  (/),  two  as   in 
geometrical   construction    No.  2    (g) — and    make 
same  with  frame  compass  saw,  chisel,  knife,  and 
file.     Glue  these  to  the  back.     Nail   fast. 

8.  Plane  the  ends  of  the  shelves  of  the  brack- 
ets in  shooting-board. 

9.  Mark  out  the  position  of  the  holes  in  the 
shelves  as  in  drawings  1   (a)  and  1  (6)   with  com- 
pass and  try-square.      Make  openings  with  center- 
bit  and  chisel. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES 


177 


10.  Provide  a  suitable  piece  of  sufficient  length 
for  the  two  partitions  in  the  box.     Prepare  in  the 
usual  manner,  and   glue  in   position  in   the  box 
as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  of  the  drawing. 

11.  Smooth  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing,  plain  jointing,  squaring,  gluing, 
gauging,  planing  in  shooting-board,  common  dove- 
tailing, boring  with  center -bit,  convex  sawing,  obstacle 
planing,  concave  cut,  convex  cut,  cross  cut,  long  cut, 
filing,  half -lap  dovetailing,  nailing,  oblique  planing, 
perpendicular  chiseling,  modeling  with  plane,  punch- 
ing nails,  smoothing  up,  scraping. 

Model    No.  XLVI. 
Dough  Trough  of  W.  W. 


5?-.. 


1  inch  1cm. 


gtfi,  15  in.,  or  38  cm. 


Breadth,  9^  in.,  or 23 cm. 


1.  Saw  out  all  the  parts  with   rip  and  cross-cut 
saw.    Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles  with  jack 


178  NAA8  MODEL  SERIES 

and  try-plane.  Gauge  breadth  and  thickness  and 
plane  down.  Measure  the  length  of  the  four 
sides  with  rule,  and  mark  out  the  angle  of 
the  inclination  of  their  ends  with  bevel  and 
try -square.  Saw  to  the  lines  with  tenon  saw. 
Smooth  the  ends  in  shooting-board  with  smooth- 
ing-plane.  Smooth  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  four 
sides  with  smoothing-plane.  Glue  the  parts 
together.  Smooth  the  outer  surfaces  with  smooth- 
ing-plane. 

2.  Outline   the   grooves  for   the  handles  to  fit 
in    with    try-square,    bevel,    and    marking  gauge, 
and    make   same  with    knife    and    chisel.     Make 
each  handle  in  three  separate  pieces  with  tenon 
saw,  smoothing-plane,  chisel,  knife,  and  file.     Fit 
the  three  pieces  together  by   means  of  an   open 
mortise    and   tenon    joint..     Glue    the   two    side 
pieces  of  each  handle  in  position  in  the  box,  then 
glue  the  cross  pieces  fast,  and  finish  the  corners 
with  knife  and  file. 

3.  Measure  the    length    of    the    bottom    piece. 
Saw  off  at  right  angles  with  tenon  saw.     Smooth 
the  ends  in  shooting-board. 

4.  Round   the  edges  and  ends  of   the   bottom 
with  smoothing-plane  and  file. 

5.  Nail  down  the  bottom.      Drive  nails  below 
the  surface  with  nail-set. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES 


179 


6.  Smooth  the  bottom  with  smoothing-plane 
and  the  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Saiving  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  oblique  sawing, 
oblique  planing,  double  oblique  dovetailing,  smoothing 
up,  gluing,  plain  jointing,  oblique  notching,  fixing 
with  wooden  pegs,  convex  cut,  long  cut,  filing,  model- 
ing with  plane,  nailing,  punching  in  nails,  scraping. 

Model   No.   XLVII. 
Book   Stand  of  W.  W. 

U  4*. 


1  inch  1cm. 


ITU- 


12 


180  NAAS  MODEL  SE11IE8 

Geometrical  Construction. 


r--— 

V 


Geometrical  Construction. 


rl-* 


a? 


t-l-rl^ 


,  •   d 


1  inch  1  cm. 

3. 


-5iV 


1  inch 


1cm. 


2.. 


Length,  20T8S  i/t.,or52  cm.  Breadth,  171§  in.,  or  45cm. 

1.  Saw  out  the  several  parts  with  rip  and  cross- 
cut saw.     Plane    face  and   edge  of  each  at  right 
angles.     Measure   the    breadth,   gauge   the  thick- 
ness, and    plane    down. 

2.  Nail  together    the   two  pieces    intended    for 
the   sides. 

3.  Outline   diagram  on    opposite  surfaces  with 
try-square,  compass,  and  meter  measure.      Shape 
with   compass  saw,  chisel,  spokeshave,  knife,  file, 
and  scraper.      Separate  the  two  pieces. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  181 

4.  The  grooves  in  which  the  shelves  are  to  be 
fitted   are   outlined    on  the    inner   surfaces   with 
compass,  try-square,    bevel,   and  marking   gauge. 
Make    the   groove   with    knife,    tenon    saw,    and 
chisel.      Measure  the  length   of  the  shelves,  and 
saw  off  at  right  angles  with  tenon  saw.     Smooth 
the  ends  in  shooting-board. 

5.  Round  the  front  edges  of   the  shelves  with 
smoothing-plane. 

0.  Fit  the  shelves  into  the  grooves  with  chisel. 
Glue  fast.  Smooth  all  the  surfaces  with  smooth - 
ing-plane,  file,1  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  planing  in 
shooting -hoard,  convex  sawing,  perpendicular  chisel- 
ing, smoothing  with  spokeshave,  concave  cut,  convex 
cut,  cross  cut,  filing,  scraping,  half -concealed  edge 
grooving,  smoothing  up,  modeling  with  plane,  gluing. 

1  The  proper  use  of  the  file  in  the  Sloycl  work  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  master.  Tbe  file  should  be  pushed  from  the  body, 
never  pulled  towards  it.  It  is  likewise  necessary  to  guard 
against  allowing  the  file  to  roll  or  wabble,  as  the  surface 
worked  upon  will  become  true  only  when  the  file  is  grasped 
firmly  by  the  handle,  and  pushed  forward  with  a  rapid,  steady 
stroke.  It  should  then  be  lifted  from  the  wood  and  placed  in 
its  original  position.  Be  careful  not  to  press  too  heavily  upon 
the  wood,  as  the  teeth  of  the  file  will  then  become  dull  very 
rapidly.  The  grooves  between  the  cutting  edges  should  be 
cleaned  from  time  to  time. 


182 


NAAti  MODEL  SERIES 


Model  No.  XLVIII. 
Hooped  Bucket  of  W.  W. 


Height,  7}g  in.,  or  20cm. 


Diameter,  8&  in.,  or  21  cm. 


1.  Saw    out  all   the  parts  with   rip  and    cross- 
cut saw.      Plane  face,   edge,    and   ends   of    each 
stave  at  right  angles  with  jack  and  try-plane. 

2,  Draw  on  both  ends  of  each  stave  a  curved 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  183 

line,  which  is  to  guide  in  the  planing  down,  in 
order  to  produce  the  inner  concave  surface  of 
each  stave.  Form  the  concave  surface  with  jack 
and  round-plane. 

3.  Gauge   the    thickness  of    each    stave    along 
the  edges.     Draw  on  both  ends  -the  curved  line 
to  guide  for  making  the  convex  surface.      Finish 
to  the  lines  with  hand  ax,  jack,  and  smoothing- 
plane. 

4.  Outline  diagram  of  the  bottom  as  in  draw- 
ing 1   (b)    with  compass.       Gauge    the   thickness 
and  plane  down.     Bring  out  the  form  with  frame 
compass  saw  and  spokeshave. 

5.  The    inclination  of   edges    of  the    staves    is 
marked  out  with  bevel  and  marking  gauge,  and 
made  with  smoothing-plane. 

6.  Outline  diagram  of  the  grooves  by  means  of 
marking  awl,  bevel,  and  gauge,  on  the  inner  sur- 
face of  each  stave,  in  which  the  bottom  is  after- 
ward   to   be    fitted,    making   the   breadth    of  the 
grooves    equal    to    the    thickness    of   the   bottom 
piece.     Cut  the  grooves   with  knife  and  chisel. 

7.  With  try-square    and    gauge   mark   out   the 
position  of  the  holes  in  which  the  little  wooden 
pegs  that  hold  the  staves  together  are  to  be  fitted. 
Bore  the  holes  with  brad-awl. 

8.  Fit  the  staves  together  and  set  the  bottom 


1S4  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

into  the  grooves.     Smooth   the  outer  surface    of 
the  staves  with  smoothing-plane. 

9.  The  iron  bands  which  encircle  the  staves  are 
now  made  fast. 

10.  Mark  out  the  required  length  between  the 
bottom  piece  and  the  lower  end  of  the  staves  by 
means  of  the  compass.     Saw  off  with  tenon  saw. 
Smooth     the     ends    with     smoothing-plane    and 
spokeshave. 

11.  The    height  is  also    to    be    measured   from 
the  bottom  piece,  and  sawed  off  with  tenon  saw 
Smooth    the    upper    ends    with    smoothing-plane 
and  spokeshave. 

12.  Outline  diagram  of  lower  ends  as  in  draw- 
ing 1   (a),  using  the  compass,  and  bring  out  the 
form  with  frame  compass  saw,  knife,  and  file. 

13.  Smooth    the    inner   surfaces   of  the   entire 
model  with   spoon-iron  or  spoon-gouge,   file,  and 
scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  oblique  sawing,  oblique 
planing,  half-concealed  edge  grooving,  gauging, 
chopping,  modeling  with  plane,  face  planing,  circular 
sawing,  oblique  cut,  smoothing  with  spokeshave,  fixing 
of  bucket  bottom,  boring  with  brad-awl,  hooping,  con- 
vex sawing,  concave  cut,  bevel  cut,  end  planing,  filing, 
scraping. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES 


185 


Model  No.  LXIX 
Cabinet  of  W.  W 

H 


<_ jg. 9 •>  IB       1  inch   1cm. 

a  6  C 

length,  26  m.,  or  66  cm.  Breadth,  15}£  *w.,  or  39.8  cm. 

1.  Saw  out  all  the  parts  with  rip  and  cross-cut 
saw. 

2.  Plane  face  and   edge  at  right  angles  of  the 
pieces    intended    for   the   stiles    and    rails  of  the 
door,   and   of  those  for  the   cornice  and  base  of 
the    cabinet.      Gauge    breadth   and    thickness    of 
each    of   these  and  plane   them    down.      Outline 
diagram  of  the  three    parts    of  the   cornice    and 
the   three  of  the  base,    and  bring  out  the  form, 
using  tjn.<'k  and  try-plane. 


186  NAAS  MODEL   SERIES 

3.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right   angles  of  the 
pieces  for  the  sides,  the  top,  back,  and  bottom  of 
the  cabinet,  and    the   panel    of  the  door.     Meas- 
ure  breadth  *  and  gauge  thickness  of  each,  and 
plane  down  with  jack  and  try-plane. 

4.  The  parts  that  are  to  be  joined  together — 
viz.,  the  two  sides  and  the  top  and  bottom  piece 
— must  be  sawed  off  to  their  required  lengths,  and 
their   ends    smoothed    in    shooting-board.      The 
dovetailing  is  made  as  in  model  No.  XXXI. 

5.  Smooth   the    edges   of    the    two   sides  with 
try-plane. 

6.  The  rabbet  in  the  sides  in  which  the  back  is 
to  be  fitted  is  marked   out  with   marking-gauge 
and  made  with  knife  and  chisel. 

7.  Glue  the  dovetailing  parts  together. 

8.  Saw    off   the    back    to    its    required    length 
and    fit    it    into     the     groove    with     smoothing- 
plane.     Nail  the  back  tightly  in  position. 

9.  Smooth  all  the  outer  surfaces  with  smooth- 
ing-plane. 

10.  Fit   together  the  parts  for  the  cornice  and 
base     with     try-square,    bevel,     and     smoothing- 
plane.      Miter    them    on    the    corners    and    nail 
together. 

1  The  breadth  of  the  top  .and  bottom  is  to  be  made  equal  to 
the  breadth  of  the  sides,  minus  the  thickness  of  the  back. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  187 

11.  The  length  of  the  stiles  and  rails  is  meas- 
ured with  rule  -and  try -square,  and  sawed  off  at 
right    angles    with    tenon    saw.     The    ends    are 
smoothed  in  shooting-board. 

12.  Outline    diagram    of   the    through    mortise 
and  tenon 1  with    relish    in    the  stiles  and    rails, 
with    try-square   and    gauge.      Make  same  as  in 
Model  No.  XLII.   with    firmer-chisel,  tenon   saw, 
and  small  chisel. 

13.  Fit  the  stiles  and  rails  together  with  chisel. 
Smooth    the-  outer   edges   of  the  stiles  and  rails 
with  try-plane. 

14.  The  grooves  in  the  stiles  and  rails  in  which 
the  panel  of  the  door  is  to  be  fitted  are  laid  out  with 
mortise  gauge,  and  made  with  knife  and  chisel. 

15.  Fit  the  panel  of  the  door  into  the  grooves 
with  try   and    smoothing-plane.     Glue  the  panel 
in    position.      Smooth    all    surfaces    of  the    door 
with  smoothing-plane. 

16.  Fix  the   hinges  and   lock  with  try-square, 
gauge,  pin-bit  or  drill,  chisel,  knife,  brad-awl,  and 
screw-driver. 

17.  Smooth  the  top  and  bottom  with   smooth- 
ing-plane, and  the  entire  model  with  scraper. 


1  Blind  mortises  and  tenons  may  be  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  door,  as  the  edges  will  then  present  a  neater 
appearance,  the  ends  of  the  tenons  being  concealed. 


188 


NAAS  MODEL   SERIES 


Exercises. — Sawing  off,  vertical  long  sawing  (foot- 
sawing),  face  planing,  plain  jointing,  gluing,  edge- 
planing,  squaring,  gauging,  end-planing,  half-lap 
dovetailing,  grooving  with  knife  and  chisel,  nailing, 
beveling  with  oblique  position,  mitering,  punching 
nails,  smoothing  up,  mortising,  firing  h  nges,  fixing 
lock,  scraping. 


Model  No.  L. 

Table  of  W.  W. 

i                                                         II 

~ 

i  !              1  1    1 

" 

I 

|~ 

1 

-1 

.  

1 

I 

J 

t,  1 

i« 

C 

, 

5 

M 

r 

1 

i 

i 

IV 

•~ 

1  I               1  1               1  1 

1" 

F~   —  \ 

i  »» 

" 

' 

1  inch         1  cm. 

Height,  30^  in-,  or  76.5  cm. 


Breadth,  13ft  in.,  or  Mem. 


FUNDAMENTAL  SERIES  189 

1.  Saw  out  the  several  parts  with  rip  and  cross- 
cut saw. 

2.  Plane  the  face  and  edge  of  each  of  the  four 
pieces    intended    for    the    legs    at    right    angles. 
Gauge  the  thickness  of  each  and  plane  down. 

3.  Plane  the  face  and  edge  of  each  of  the  four 
upper  side  pieces,  or  upper  rails,  and  of  each  of 
the    four    lower    rails    at    right   angles.      Gauge 
breadth  and  thickness  and  plane  down. 

4.  Lay  out  the  tenons  as  indicated  in  drawing 
(a)    for   the  blind   mortise-joints  with   try-square 
and  gauge.     Make  the  tenons  with  tenon  saw  and 
chisel. 

5.  Screw   the    four    legs   into    the   vise   of   the 
bench.     Lay  out  the  position    of  the  mortises  as 
in    drawing    (a)    with  try-square   and  gauge,  and 
make  same  with  firmer-chisel  and  mallet.     Meas- 
ure the  length  of  the  legs  and  saw  off. 

6.  Construct  outline  of  the  legs  as  in  drawing 
with  try-square,  compass,  and  gauge.     Bring  out 
the   form    with  jack   and    try-plane,  making  the 
bevel  or  chamfer  with  chisel  and  file. 

7.  Fit   the   tenons  of  the  rails    into   the   mor- 
tises  of  the  legs,  making   a   blind  mortise-joint, 
with  chisel. 

8.  The  grooves  in  which  the  gight  small  mortise 
blocks    that   strengthen    the  table-top    are   to   be 


100  NAAS  MODEL  SEMES 

fitted,  are  marked  out  on  the  inside  of  the  four 
upper  rails  with  compass,  try-square,  and  gauge, 
and  are  made  with  chisel. 

9.  Glue  the  rails  and  legs  together. 

10.  Saw  off  the  upper  ends  of  the  legs  at  right 
angles  and  at  a  level  with  the  upper  rails.    Smooth 
the  upper  edges  of  the  upper  rails  and  the  upper 
ends  of  the  legs  with  smoothing-plane. 

11.  Smooth  all  outer  surfaces  with  smoothing- 
plane. 

12.  Plane  the  face  and  edge   of  the  pieces  in- 
tended   for   the  table-top  and   the   shelf  at  right 
angles.      Measure  the   breadth,   gauge   the  thick- 
ness, and  plane    down. 

13.  Fit   the   shelf  in    position,  using   the    try- 
square,  gauge,  tenon  saw,  and  chisel. 

14.  The  blocks  that  are  to  strengthen  the  shelf 
are  planed  in  one  length.      Gauge   breadth    and 
thickness  and  plane  down.     Mark  out  the  length 
of  each  with    compass,  and   saw  off  with  tenon 
saw.     Smooth  with  chisel. 

15.  The   shelf  is  held  fast    to    the   lower   rails 
with  clamps  or  hand-screws,  and  the  twelve  small 
blocks  are  glued  down  on  the  inside. 

16.  Lay  out  diagram  of  the  table-top  as  in  draw- 
ing (c)   with   try-square  and  compass,  and    make 
same   with   chisel,   smoothing-plane,  and   file. 


TOWN  ELEMENTARY  SERIES  191 

17.  Plane   face  and  edge  of  the  eight  mortise- 
blocks    that   strengthen    the    table-top    at    right 
angles  in  one  length.     Measure  the  length  of  each 
with    compass,    then    saw    off,    and    shape    with 
chisel.     Fit   the  mortise  blocks  into  the  grooves. 
The  table-top  is  held  fast  to  the  upper  rails  with 
clamps  or  hand  screws,  and  the  mortise  blocks  are 
glued  into  the  grooves   (the    glue    being    placed 
only  upon  the  upper  surface  of  each  block). 

18.  Smooth     the   edges   of  the    top    and    shelf 
with  smoothing-plane  and  file. 

19.  Smooth  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises.  —  Sawing  off,  vertical  long  sawing 
(foot  sawing] ,  face-planing ',  squaring r,  gauging ,  edge- 
planing,  haunched  tenon  (concealed  mortising), 
oblique  planing,  chamfering  with  chisel,  fling, 
smoothing  up,  gluing,  plain-jointing,  gluing  with 
use  of  clamps,  blocking  (gluing  with  Hocks] ,  perpen- 
dicular chiseling,  end  planing,  mortise  blocking, 
scraping. 

II.    TOWN    ELEMENTARY    SERIES.1 

Model  No.  I.  (a).    Kindergarten    Pointer.     (See  page  103.) 
Model  No.  I.  (b).     Kindergarten  Pointer.     (See  page  104.) 

1  Many  of  the  models  in  the  Town  Elementary  Series  are 
made  in  the  same  way  as  the  corresponding  models  in  the 


192  JfAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

Model  No.  II. 
Parcel  Pin  of  W.  B. 


1  inch  1  cm. 

Length,  2£§  in.,  or  7  cm.  Thickness,  T°B  in.,  or  1  cm. 

1.  A  suitable  piece  of  wood  is  cut  four-sided  so 
that  it  will   have  the  form  of  a  square  in  cross 
section. 

2.  Measure   the   length  and   cut  off. 

3.  Chamfer    as    shown    in    drawing.      Cut   the 
notches.      (The  entire  work  is   to  be    done    with 
the  knife.) 

Exercises. — Long  cut,  cross  cut,  bevel  cut. 

Model  No.   III.    Round  Flower  Stick.    (See  page    105.) 

Model  No.  IV.    Penholder.    (See   page    106.) 

Model  No.   V.     Rectangular    Flower    Stick.        (See     page 

107.) 

Model  No.   VI.     Slate-pencil  Holder.        (See  page  108.) 
Model  No.  VII.      Key  Label.       (See  page  109.) 
Model  No.  VIII.     Thread  Winder.     (Seepage    110.) 

Fundamental  Series,  and  many  of  those  in  the  High  School 
Series  are  made  like  those  in  either  the  Fundamental  or  the 
Town  Series.  In  such  cases  a  reference  to  the  page  on  which 
the  model  has  already  been  described  is  sufficient 


TOWN  ELEMENTARY  SERIES  193 

Model  No.  IX. 
Bar  of  W.  W.  (used  by  the  Wood-Carriers). 


/  inch      1  cm. 
Length,  13jg  in.,  or  35  cm.  Diameter,  1  in.,  or  2.5  cm. 

1.  Saw  from  block  a  suitable  piece  of  wood  with 
rip  and  cross-cut  saws. 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles.     Gauge 
breadth    and    thickness,    and    plane    down    with 
jack  and  try-planes. 

3.  Draw   diagonals    on    both    ends.      With    the 
intersection  points  as  centers,  describe  circumfer- 
ences within  the  squares. 

4.  Make  the  object  octagonal,  then  sixteen-sided 
with  try-plane. 

5.  Round  with  smoothing-plane. 

6.  Measure  the  length  and  saw  off  with  tenon 
saw. 

7.  Round    the    ends    with    knife,    and    smooth 
entire  model   with   file. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  edge  planing, 
squaring,  gauging,  bevel  planing,  modeling  with 
plane,  convex  cut,  cross-cut,  filing. 


194 


MAA8  MODEL  SERIES 


Model   No.   X. 
Pen  Rest  of  W.  B. 

-SA > 


linch 


1  cm 


Length,  3r9c  in.,  or  9  cm. 


Breadth, 


.,  or  2  cm. 


1.  Saw  from  block  as  before.     Cut  to  approxi- 
mate thickness  with  hand  ax. 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles.     Gauge 
breadth  and  thickness  and  plane  down. 

3.  Measure  the  length  and  the  position  of  the 
recesses  with  compass.     Saw  off  the  length  with 
tenon    saw.      Cut   the    recesses   with    tenon    saw 
and  knife. 

4.  On  each  end  construct  a  semicircle  with  a 
radius  equal  to  half  the  thickness.     Round    the 
upper  surface  with    these  semi-circumferences   as 
guiding  lines,  using  smoothing-plane  for  the  pur- 
pose.    Smooth  the  ends  with  knife  and  the  entire 
model  with   file. 

Exercises. — Saiving  off,  chopping,  edge  planing, 
squaring,  gauging,  cross-sawing  with  tenon  saw,  long 
cut,  cross  cut,  modeling  with  plane,  filing. 

Model  No.  XI.      Paper-Cutter.     (ScC  page  1 14.) 


TOWN  ELEMENTARY  SERIES  195 

Model  No.  XII. 
Strop  Stick  of  W.  B. 


o  ja 


I  inch        1  cm,. 
Length,  15}§  in. ,  or  40  cm.  Breadth,  1 T9B  in. ,  or  4  cm. 

1.  Saw  from  block  as  before. 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles.     Gauge 
breadth  and  thickness  and  plane  down. 

3.  Construct  outline  on  both  edges  as  in  draw- 
ing (b)  with  try-square  and  gauge.     Bring  1out  the 
form  with  rip  saw,  smoothing-plane  (obstacle  plan- 
ing), and   chisel. 

4.  Saw  off  the  length  of  the  handle  with  tenon 
saw.     Smooth  this  end  with  chisel.     Measure  the 
entire  length  and  saw  off.     Round  the  upper  end 
with  tenon  saw  and  chisel. 

5.  Bore  the  hole  with  center-bit,  working  from 
opposite  sides.     Smooth  with   file  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  obstacle  planing, 
perpendicular  chiseling,  boring  with  center-bit,  filing, 

scraping. 

13 


196  NAAS  MODEL  SE8IES 

Model  No.  XIII.      Small    Bowl.       (See  pCKJC  127.) 
Model  No.  XIV.     Hammer  Handle.        (See  pd(]G    119.) 

Model  NO.  xv.  spoon.   (See  page  120.) 

Model  No.  XVI.    Chopping  Board.     (See  page  122.) 
Model  No.  XVII.    Flower-pot  Cross.     (See  page  123.) 


Model   No.   XVIII. 
Meter   Measure  of  W.  B. 


*CG 


-l'J!,'r 


*   I  I   I  I  LJLJ 

.f  inch         1  cm. 
Length,  25T3B  in.,  or  64  cm.  Breadth,  1  iw.,  or  2.5  cm. 

1.  Sw    from  block    a   suitable   piece   of   wood 
as  before. 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles.     Gauge 
breadth  and  thickness  and  plane  down. 

3.  Draw  outline  of  the  rule  as  in  drawing  (a) 
with  try-square    and    gauge,  and  make  with  rip 
saw,  smoothing-plane,  and  spokeshave. 

4.  Taper  with  try-plane. 

5.  Draw  outline  of  the  handle.     Saw  out  with 
compass    saw    and   shape    with    knife.      Chamfer 
with   knife. 

6.  Measure  length,  and  saw  off  at  right  angles 
with  tenon  saw. 

7.  Smooth  entire  model  with  file  and  scraper. 


TOWN  ELEMENTARY  SERIES 


197 


Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  obstacle  plan- 
ing, smoothing  with  spokeshave,  convex  sawing, 
concave  cut,  long  cut,  convex  cut,  cross  cut,  level  cut, 
filing,  scraping. 

Model  NO.  xix.  scoop.   (See  page  125.) 
Model  NO.  xx.  clothes  Rack.     (See  page  127.) 

Model   No.  XXI.    Flower-pot  Stand.     (See  page    129.) 
Model   No.  XXII.      Ax    Handle.      (See   page    131.) 

Model  NO.  xxin.    Footstool.     (See  page    132.) 


Model  No.  XXIV. 
Book  Carrier  of  W.  W.  and  W.  B. 


_l_»  1  inch  1  cm. 


1. 


198  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

Geometrical  Construction. 


Length,  9^  in.,  or  23  cm,  2.  Breadth,  5^  in.,  or  15  cm. 


1.  Saw  out  the  two  pieces  that  form  the  carrier 
as  before.     Plane  face  and  edge  of  each  at  right 
angles.     Measure  the  breadth  and  plane  down. 

2.  Mark  out  the  position    of   the  grooving  in 
the   top   piece    with    try-square,   compass,    meter 
measure,  marking-awl,  bevel,  and  gauge.     Cut  the 
groove  with  tenon  saw,  chisel,  and  rabbet  plane. 

3.  Make    the   two    dovetail  tongues  with  jack 
and    try-plane.       Fit    them    into     the     grooves. 
Gauge  the  thickness  and  plane  down. 

4.  Measure   the   required  length   of  the   parts, 
and  saw  off  with  tenon  saw. 

5.  Nail  the  parts  together.     Smooth  the  ends  at 
right    angles    with  smoothing-plane.      Mark  out 
the  position  of  the  recesses  with  try-square   and 
compass,  and  make  them  with  tenon  saw,  chisel, 
and  knife.     Separate  the  parts. 

6.  Saw   out   a   suitable   piece   for    the   handle. 
Gauge  breadth    and  thickness    and  plane  down. 
Draw  outline  as  in  geometrical  construction  (2) 


TOWN  ELEMENTARY  SERIES  199 

with  try-square  and  compass,  and  bring  out  the 
form  with  compass  saw,  chisel,  smoothing-plane, 
knife,  file,  and  scraper. 

7.  Bore  the  holes  with  pin-bit  or  drill.  Fasten 
the  handle  with  wood-screws,  driving  the  screws 
in  at  a  slight  inclination. 

Exercises. —  Sawing  off ,  face  planing,  edge  plan- 
ing, squaring,  dovetail  damping,  beveling  with 
oblique  position,  gauging,  end  planing,  cross  sawing 
with  tenon  saw,  perpendicular  chiseling,  long  cut, 
convex  sawing,  concave  chiseling,  cross  cut,  modeling 
with  plane,  fixing  with  screws,  filing,  bevel  cut, 
scraping,  boring  witli  shell-bit. 

Model  NO.  xxv.  BOX.   (See  page  137.) 
Model  NO.  xxvi.  Ladie.   (See  page  139.) 

Model   No.  XXVII.   Baker's  Shovel.    (See  page    141.) 
Model   No.  XXVIII.   Clothes-Beater.      (See  page    142.) 

Model  NO.  xxix.  Ruier.   (See  page  143.) 
Model  NO.  xxx.  Bootjack.   (See  page  145.) 

Model   No.  XXXI.    Lamp  Bracket.    (See  page    147.) 
Model   No.  XXXII.      Weaving    Shuttle.      (Seepage  150.) 

Model  NO.  xxxin.    Knife  BOX.     (See  page  151.) 

Model  No.  XXXIV.     American    Ax    Handle.       (See     page 

154.) 

Model  NO.  xxxv.  Match  BOX.    (See  page  155.) 

Model  No.  XXXVI.    Baseball  Bat.     (See  page    157.) 


200 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


Model  No.  XXXVII. 
Triangle  of  W.  B. 

71 J 


linch 


1  cm. 


Length,  7{g  in.,  or  20  cm. 


Breadth,  3>i  in.,  or  10  cm. 


1.  Saw  from  block  a  suitable  piece  of  wood,  as 
in  previous  exercises. 

2.  Plane   face   and   edge   at  right  angles  with 
try-plane.     Gauge  the  thickness  and  saw  off  with 
rip  saw. 

3.  Plane  to  required  thickness  as  in  Model  No. 
XXIX.,   page    144,   adjusting   the   wood    upon    a 
foundation  piece. 

4.  Chamfer  with  try-plane. 

5.  Smooth  the  one  end  in  shooting-board  with 
try-plane. 

6.  Lay  out  diagram  as  in  drawing  with  meter 
measure,  try-square,  marking  awl,  and  bring  out 
the  form   witli   tenon   saw  and  smoothing-plane. 

7.  Divisions  are  laid  out  with  the  aid  of  com- 
pass,   and    scratched    on    the    chamfer   with    try- 
square  and  marking  awl.     Smooth  with  scraper. 


HIGH  SCHOOL  SERIES  201 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing r,  squaring,  gauging,  fixing  with 
wooden  pegs  (for  planing  thin  wood ) ,  planing  with 
compass  plane,  beveling  with  oblique  position,  plan- 
ing in  shooting-board,  boring  with  center -bit,  oblique 
sawing,  oblique  planing ,  setting  out,  scraping. 

Model  NO.  xxxviii.    Pen  BOX.     (See  page  159.) 
Model  NO.  xxxix.  stooi.    (See  page  160.) 

Model  No.  XL.    Try-square.     (See  page    163.) 

Model  NO.  XLI.  piate  Rack.  (See  page  165.) 

Model  No.  XLI  I.    Marking  Gauge.     (See  page    168.) 
Model  No.  XLIII.    Rake  Head.    (See   page    170.) 
Model   No.  XLIV.    Picture  Frame.     (See  page    172.) 

Model  NO.  XLV.  Tool  Rack.   (See  page  174.) 
Model  NO.  XLVI.  Dough  Trough.  (See  page  177.) 
Model  NO.  XLVI i.    Book  stand.    (See  page  179.) 

Model  No.  XLVI II.  Hooped  Bucket.   (See  page  182.) 

Model  NO.  XLIX.  cabinet.   (See  page  185.) 
Model  NO.  L.  Table.    (See  page  188.) 

III.     HIGH    SCHOOL    SERIES. 

Model  No.  I.  (a).    Kindergarten  Pointer.     (Seepage  103.) 
Model  No.  Mb).    Kindergarten  Pointer.    (Seepage  104.) 
Model  No.   II.    Parcel  Pin.       (See  page    192.) 
Model  No.  III.    Round    Flower   Stick.    (See  page    105.) 


202  NAA8  MODEL  SERIES 

Model  No.  IV. 
Letter  Opener  of  W.  B. 


linch        1  cm. 
Length,  6f|  in.,  or  17.1  cm.  Breadth,  -fa  in.,  or  1  cm. 

1.  Select   a   suitable   piece   of    wood.      Cut   to 
required  breadth  and  thickness. 

2.  Construct  outline  as  in  drawing,  and  shape 
with    knife,  making  it  first   octagonal,  then  six- 
teen-sided, and  then  round. 

3.  Measure  the  length  and  cut  off. 

4.  Round  the  ends. 

Exercises.  —  Sawing   off,  long  cut,  cross  cut,  convex 
cut. 


Model  No.  V.      Rectangular   Flower  Stick.         (See 

107.) 

Model   No.  VI.    Charcoal  and  Pencil  Holder  of  W.  W.     (See 

page  108.) 

Model   No.  VII.     Key    Label.     (See  page    109.) 

Model  No.  VIII.    Pack-thread  Winder.    (See  page   110.) 

Model  NO.  ix.  Bar.   (See  page  193.) 
Model  NO.  x.    Pen  Rest.     (See  page   194.) 


man  SCHOOL  SERIES 


203 


Model  No.  XI.    Paper-cutter.      (See  page    114.) 

Model  NO.  xii.  strop  stick.  (See  page  195.) 
Model  NO.  xiii.  smaii  Bowi.  (Seepage  117.) 

Model  No.  XIV.    Hammer  Handle.     (See  page    119.) 


Model  No.  XV. 
Pen  Tray  of  W.  B. 


linch          1  cm. 


Length^  9}*  in.,  or  25  cm. 


Breadth^  2||  m.,  or  7  cm. 


1.  Saw  off  from  block  a  suitable  piece  of  wood. 
Plane    face    and    edge    at    right    angles.     Gauge 
breadth  and  plane  down. 

2.  Lay  out  the  position    of  the  hollow  as   in 
drawing     (a)     with    try-square,    compass,    meter 
measure    or    rule,    and   gauge.      Make   the   hol- 
low   with    gouge,    mallet,  spoon-iron,1   or   spoon- 

1  The  spoon-iron  is  rarely,  if  ever,  used  in  American  car- 
penter shops.  It  is  similar  in  appearance  to  our  spoon  gouge, 
but  it  is  very  much  more  convenient  for  deep  concave 
surfaces. 


204  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

gouge,     and     smooth    with     scraper    and    sand- 
paper.1 

3.  Gauge  the  thickness,  and    plane  down  with 
try-plane. 

4.  Measure   the    length,  and   saw   off  at   right 
angles  with  tenon  saw. 

5.  Lay  out  the  form  of  the  ends  with  compass, 
and    shape    with    chisel     and     smoothing-plane. 
Smooth  with  file. 

6.  Smooth    the    outer    surfaces    of    the    entire 
model  with  smoothing-plane  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  gouging  with 
gouge  and  with  spoon-iron,  scraping,  perpendicular 
chiseling,  filing,  modeling  with  plane,  smoothing 
up. 

Model  No.  XVI.    Chopping   Board.       (See  page    122.) 
Model  No.  XVII.    Flower-pot  Cross.       (See  page    123.) 
Model  No.  XVIII.    Meter    Measure.       (See  page    196.) 

Model  NO.  xix.  scoop.   (See  page  125.) 

Model  NO.  xx.    clothes  Rack.      (See  page  127.) 

Model  No.  XXI.    Flower-pot  Stand.        (Seepage    129.) 


'After  rubbing  this  hollow  surface  with  sand-paper,  a 
piece  of  cork  should  be  used  to  remove  any  slight  rough- 
ness. 


HIGH  SCHOOL  SERIES 


205 


Model  No.  XXII. 
Flower-press  Roller  and  Rests  of  W.  B. 


1 


1. 


Geometrical  Construction. 


1  cm. 


Length,  15  in.,  or  38  cm. 


TJiickness,  2ieB  in.,  or  6  cm. 


1.  Saw    out    a    suitable    piece    for    the    roller. 
Plane  face  and  edge  at  right  angles.     Gauge  the 


206  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

thickness,  and  plane  down  with  try-plane.     Meas- 
ure the  length  and  saw  off  at  right  angles. 

2.  Lay  out  the  position  of  the  holes  with  try- 
square,  compass,  and  gauge.     Bore  the  holes  from 
both  sides  with  center-bit. 

3.  Construct  on  each  end  a  circumference  with- 
in the  square.     Make   the   piece  first  octagonal, 
then  sixteen-sided,  and  then  cylindrical,  with  jack 
and  try-plane. 

4.  Smooth  with  file  and  scraper. 

5.  Saw  out  the  pieces  for  the  two  rests  in  one 
length. 

6.  Gauge    breadth    and   thickness  of   each  and 
plane  down. 

7.  Lay  out  outline  as  in  geometrical  construc- 
tion   (2)  with   try-square  and  compass. 

8.  Shape  with  compass  saw,  gouge,  chisel,  and 
file. 

9.  The     inclination    of    the    upper     edges     is 
marked    out  with    compass   and    meter   measure 
or  rule,  and    is   planed     down     with     try-plane. 
Lay  out   position    of    the    holes    for   the   screws. 
Bore  them  with  suitable  bit  or  drill. 

10.  Smooth  the  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
squaring,  gauging,  boring  with  center-bit,  Level 


HIGH  SCHOOL   SERIES 


207 


ing,  modeling  with  plane,  perpendicular  chiseling, 
filing,  scraping,  boring  with  shell-bit,  edge  planing, 
convex  sawing,  perpendicular  gouging,  oblique  plan- 
ing. 

Model  NO.  xxiii.  Footstool.    (See  page  132.) 

Model  No.  XXIV.    Book  Carrier.     (See    page     197.) 

Model  NO.  xxv.  BOX.  (See  page   137.) 
Model  NO.  xxvi.  Ladie.    (See  page  139.) 

Model  No.  XXVII. 
Flower-press  of  W.  W. 


<!  ft 

/ 

I 

,113 

1 



— 



-Wtt- 



— 

a 

\ 

Gil 

—  n 

u 

i 

a* 

-15  is 

'I  inc/i.  /          \         i  cm. 


208 


JiAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


/ 

4 

2 

\2\l 

\ 

1 

\ 

1 

1  inch         1  cm,. 


Length,  17i§  in.,  or  45.1  cm. 


Breadth,  9}|  in.,  or  25.1  cm. 


1.  Saw    out    the    two    parts    for    the    top    and 
bottom  pieces. 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  of  each  at  right  angles. 
Measure  the  breadth  of  each  and  plane  down. 

3.  Lay    out    the    position    of    the    grooves    by 
means  of  compass,  try-square,  meter  measure  or 
rule,  marking  awl,  and  bevel.     Remove  so  as  to 
make  the  grooves  with   knife,  tenon  saw,  chisel, 
and  rabbet-plane  or  router-plane. 

4.  The  dovetail  tongue  is  made  with  jack  and 
try-plane  and  fitted  into  the  groove. 

5.  Lay  out  diagram  of  the  form,  and  saw  out 
with  frame  compass   saw.     Gauge    the  thickness, 
and  plane  down  with  jack  and  try-plane. 

6.  Smooth  the  ends  with  spokeshave  and  file. 

7.  The   inclination    of   the    lower   side   of   the 


HIGH  SCHOOL  SERIES  209 

bottom  piece  is  marked  out  with  compass,  try- 
square,  and  gauge,  and  planed  down  with  try- 
plane  and  smoothing-plane. 

8.  Smooth  entire  model  with  smoothing-plane 
and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  chopping,  face  planing, 
plain  jointing,  gluing,  squaring,  dovetail  damping, 
convex  sawing,  gauging,  smoothing  with  spokeshave, 
square  planing,  wedge  planing,  smoothing  up,  scrap- 
ing, modeling  with  draw-knife. 


Model  No.   XXVIII. 


Coat  Stretcher  of  W.  B. 


1  inch  1  cm. 

Length,  15£f  in.,  or  40  cm.  Breadth,  1&  in.,  or  3.5cm. 

1.  Saw  out  a  suitable  piece  of  wood.  Plane 
face  and  edge  at  right  angles.  Gauge  thickness 
and  plane  down. 


210  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

2.  Lay    out    outline    on   opposite   edges  as   in 
drawing  (b).     Saw  out  with  frame  compass  saw. 
Plane  down  convex  surface  with  smoothing-plane 
and   concave   surface   with    compass   or    circular 
plane. 

3.  Measure   the   length    and   saw  off.      Round 
the  ends  with  knife. 

4.  Mark  out  the  position  of  the  holes  and  bore 
with   center-bit   and  pin-bit,  boring    from   below 
with    center-bit,  and  from  the  top   with   pin-bit, 
as  indicated  in  drawing    (b). 

5.  Round    the    edges     with     spokeshave,    and 
smooth  with  file  and  scraper. 

6.  Fasten    the   iron    hook   in   position,  having 
previously  made   a  tenon  with  chisel.      Fit  this 
tenon  into  the  hole  and  glue  fast. 

7.  Smooth  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing ',  face  planing , 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  convex  sawing, 
planing  with  compass  plane,  smoothing  up,  cross  cut, 
convex  cut,  boring  with  center-bit,  boring  with  shell- 
bit,  modeling  with  spokeshave,  filing,  scraping,  sink- 
ing iron  plates. 

Model  NO.  xxix.  Ruier.    (See  page   143.) 
Model  NO.  xxx.  Bootjack.    (See  page   145.) 


HIGH  SCHOOL   SERIES 


211 


Model  No.  XXXI.    Lamp  Bracket.       (See  page    147.) 
Model   No.   XXXII.     Weaving   Shuttle.       (Seepage  150.) 

Model  NO.  xxxiii.    Knife  BOX.     (See  page    151.) 

Model  No.  XXXIV.    Ax   Handle  (American).        (See    page 

154.) 
Model  NO.  xxxv.    Match  BOX.     (See  page   155.) 

Model  No.  XXXVI.     Baseball   Bat.     (See  page     157.) 
Model   No.  XXXVII.    Triangle.        (See    page     200.) 

Model  NO.  xxxvin.  Pen  BOX.     (See  page   159.) 
Model  NO.  xxxix.  stooi.     (See  page   160.) 

Model   No.  XL.    Try-square.        (See   page    163.) 

Model  No.  XLI. 
Drawing  Board  with   Frame  of  W.  W. 

Board. 
4* 


I 

I! 


1  inch  1  cm. 

C 


Lenffth,  19H  in.,  or  50  cm. 
14 


Breadth^  15 jg  in.,  or  40  cm. 


212 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 
Frame. 


r 


™ 


M 


• g^§      1  i'lH'.h 


Length, 


n.,  or  50.5  cm. 


2. 


Breadth,  17T%  m.  or  44.5.  cm. 


1.  Saw    out    the    several    parts    with    rip    and 
cross-cut  saws. 

2.  Plane  face    and    edge  of    the   parts    for   the 
frame   at    right   angles.      Measure    the    breadth, 
gauge   the  thickness,  and  plane    down.     Measure 
the    length    and   saw    off.     Smooth    the    ends    in 
shooting-board. 

3.  Dovetail  as  in  Model  No.  XXXIII.  (page  152). 

4.  Plane   face    and    edge  of  the   parts    for   the 
board  at   right   angles.     Measure  breadth,   gauge 
thickness,  and  plane  down.     Measure  length  and 
saw  off  at  right  angles  with  rip  saw. 

5.  Lay  out   the    position  of  the   grooves    with 


HIGH  SCHOOL  SERIES  213 

try-square,  compass,  meter  measure  or  rule, 
marking  awl,  bevel,  and  gauge.  Remove  so  as 
to  produce  the  grooves  with  knife,  tenon  saw, 
chisel,  and  rabbet-plane. 

6.  The  inclination  of  the  sides  of  the  dovetail 
tongue  is   laid  out  with   rule  and    compass,  and 
made  with  jack  and  try-plane. 

7.  Smooth  the  ends  with  try-plane  and  fit  into 
the    frame.       The    small    support    blocks     that 
strengthen  the  corners  of  the  frame  are  planed  in 
one  length  with   try-plane,  and  sawn  off  to  their 
required    length  with  tenon    saw.       Smooth    the 
ends  with  chisel  and  nail  down. 

8.  The   bolts  are    planed  in    one   length    with 
try-plane,  and  shaped  with  chisel  and  knife. 

9.  Bore   the    holes   with   brad-awl    and    screw 
the    bolts    down.       Smooth    entire    model   with 
smoothing-plane  and  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  plan- 
ing, edge  planing,  squaring,  gluing,  gauging,  plan- 
ing in  shooting -board,  dovetailing  in  thick  wood, 
dovetail  clamping,  end  planing,  oblique  planing, 
smoothing  up,  mitering,  oblique  chiseling,  boring 
with  brad-awl,  nailing,  perpendicular  chiseling, 
long  cut,  fixing  with  screws,  scraping. 

Mode!   No.XLII.    Marking  Gauge.       (Seepage  168.) 


214 


NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 


Model  No.  XLIII. 
Bracket  of  W.  B. 


Geometrical  Construction. 


Length,  15 Jjj  in.,  or  40  cm. 


Breadth,  7j£  in.,  or  20 cm. 


HIGH  SCHOOL  SERIES  215 

1.  Saw  out  the  several  parts  with  rip  and  cross- 
cut saws. 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  of  the   pieces  intended 
for   the   two  bracket   supports   and  the  piece  for 
the  body   of   the    shelf   at  right  angles.      Gauge 
breadth  and  thickness  and  plane  down. 

3.  Nail    the    parts   for   the   supports   together. 
Draw  outlines  as  in  geometrical  construction  2  (d) 
with  try-square,  compass,  and  meter  measure  or 
rule. 

4.  Saw  off  the  upper  end  at  right  angles  with 
rip     saw     and     smooth     with    smoothing-plane. 
Bring   out   the   form    with    compass   saw,  chisel, 
gouge,  file,  and  scraper. 

5.  Lay  out  the  position  of  the  two  grooves  on 
the   bottom    of  the  body  of  the  shelf,  in    which 
the  supports  are  to  be  fitted  with  compass,    try- 
square,    marking    awl,    bevel,  and    gauge.      (The 
depth  of  the  grooves  is  marked  out  with  mortise 
gauge.) 

6.  Remove,  producing  the  grooves  with  knife, 
tenon  saw,  chisel,  and  rabbet-plane. 

7.  Saw  off  the  required  length  of  the  back  and 
the  body  of  the  shelf  at  the  same  time  with  tenon 
saw. 

8.  Smooth  the  ends  with  smoothing-plane. 

9.  Glue  the  supports  into  position. 


216  NX  AS  MODEL  SERIES 

10.  Smooth  the  body  of  the  shelf  with  smootli- 
ing-plane. 

11.  Saw  out  the  pillars  (e)  in  one  length.    Bring 
out  their  form  with  plane,  chisel,  and  knife. 

12.  The  railing   (b)   of  the  balustrade  is  made 
with  the  try-plane. 

13.  The  distance  between  the  pillars  is  marked 
out    with    compass.      The   holes   in    which    the 
tenons   of  the   pillars   are   to  fit  are  bored  with 
center-bit. 

14.  Nail  the  back  and  body  together.     Fit  the 
other  parts  and  glue  fast.     Smooth  all  outer  sur- 
faces with  smoothing-plane. 

15.  The  carving   on   the   edges   is    made   with 
carving-tools. 

16.  Smooth  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  plain  jointing,  gluing,  gaug- 
ing, end  planing,  convex  sawing,  perpendicular  chisel- 
ing, perpendicular  gouging,  filing,  scraping,  Jut  If 
concealed  edge  grooving,  smoothing  up,  concave  cut, 
long  cut,  bevel  cut,  mortising,  setting  out,  scraping, 
sinking  iron  plates,  boring  with  center-bit,  nailing, 
graving  with  V-tool. 

Model  No.  XLIV.    Picture   Frame.      (8ce  page    172.) 
Model    No.   XLV.    Tool  Rack.       (See  page     174.) 


HIGH  SCHOOL  SERIES  217 


Model  No.  XLVI. 
Tea  Tray  of  W.  W. 

OM , 


-1-31-g > 

f 


-ISft- 


1  inch  1  cm. 

Length,  l'd\%  in..,  or  35  cm.  Breadth,  9/c  m.,  or  24  <?m. 

1.  Saw  out   the  several    parts    as    in    previous 
exercises. 

2.  Plane  face  and  edge  of  each  at  right  angles. 
Gauge    thickness,    measure   breadth,    and    plane 
down. 

3.  Lay    off  the    length  of  the    four  sides    with 
meter  measure  or  rule,  determining  the  angles  of 
inclination  of  the  ends  by  means  of  level.      Saw 
off  with   tenon  saw  and  smooth    the  ends    with 
smoothing-plane. 

4.  The    dovetailing  is   made   as  in    Model    No. 
XXXIII.  (page    152). 

5.  Draw  the  outline  of  the  ends  and  bring  out 
the  form  with  center-bit,  chisel,  compass  saw,  file, 
and   knife. 


218  NAAS  MODEL  SERIES 

6.  Glue  the  sides  and  ends  together.      Smooth 
the  outer  surfaces  with  smoothing-plane. 

7.  Draw  the  outline  of  the  bottom  and   shape 
with  smoothing-plane  and  file. 

8.  Nail  down  the  bottom.     The  upper  edges  are 
rounded  with  smoothing-plane,  knife,  and  file. 

9.  Smooth  the  entire  model  with  scraper. 

Exercises. — Sawing  off,  long  sawing,  face  planing, 
edge  planing,  squaring,  gauging,  plain  jointing,  glu- 
ing, oblique  sawing,  oblique  planing,  double  oblique 
dovetailing,  boring  with  center -bit,  perpendicular  chisel- 
ing, convex  sawing,  long  cut,  convex  cut,  concave  cut, 
filing,  smoothing  up,  modeling  with  plane,  boring 
with  brad-awl,  nailing,  punching  in  nails,  scraping. 

Model  No.  XLVII.    Book  Stand.      (See    page     179.) 
Model   No.  XLVII1.     Hooped   Bucket.     (See  page     182.) 

Model  NO.  XLIX.  cabinet.    (See  page   185.) 
Model  NO.  L.  Table.    (See  page    188.) 


CHAPTER    V. 

EVA     RODHE'S     MODEL    SERIES. 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  object  of  all  education  is  to  form  the 
character  and  to  strengthen  the  will  power, 
to  develop  the  intellectual  faculties  and  the 
ability  to  work,  and  to  give  a  healthy  physical 
training.  As  to  this  aim,  all  educators  are  agreed, 
as  also  to  the  idea  that  education  is  the  most 
important  factor  in  the  making  of  the  man  ;  but 
in  two  other  respects  there  is  among  educators 
great  difference  of  opinion :  first,  as  to  when 
the  education  should  begin ;  and,  second,  as  to 
what  a  correct  and  rational  education  should 
comprise. 

I  believe  that  the  education  of  the  child 
begins  with  his  consciousness.  The  foundation 
for  the  child's  character  should  be  laid  in  the 
earliest  years  of  his  life.  Even  at  the  age  of 
five  years,  great  differences  may  be  noted  in 

219 


220  EVA   ROD  HE  8  MODEL  SERIES 

the  characters  of  different  children,  differences 
which  are  the  result  not  only  of  natural  or 
inherited  tendencies,  but  also  of  the  "  bringing 
up."  If  all  parents  understood  how  to  educate 
their  children  in  the  right  way,  without  exer- 
cising either  undue  severity  or  excessive  indul- 
gence, if  they  themselves  could  serve  as  worthy 
examples  of  what  they  would  have  their  chil- 
dren be  and  do,  then  indeed  might  we  expect 
our  future  generations  to  display  a  far  nobler 
type  of  manhood  and  womanhood.  It  is  the 
province  of  the  school  to  assist  parents  in  form- 
ing the  child's  character,  to  impart  information, 
and  to  cultivate  the  power  "  to  do,"  thereby  de- 
veloping the  mental  faculties,  and  last,  but  not 
least,  to  send  the  child  back  to  the  home  with 
a  strong  and  healthy  body.  In  order  to  accom- 
plish these  ends,  the  school  must  demand  of 
the  pupils  that  they  be  truthful,  obedient,  faith- 
ful, diligent,  orderly,  kind  to  their  comrades,  and 
active  and  willing  in  their  work.  How  can 
this  be  best  accomplished  ? 

As  few  rules  as  possible  should  be  laid  down 
for  the  guidance  of  the  pupil.  No  pedantry 
should  exist  within  the  class-room,  and  any  tend- 
encies towards  it  should  be  discouraged.  The 
lessons  should  be  short  and  of  a  character  calcu- 


INTRODUCTION  221 

kited  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the  child,  so  that 
the  work  may  prove  pleasant  and  not  irksome. 

When  the  work  is  of  a  healthy  character  and 
within  the  child's  capability,  then  only  will  the 
information  imparted  be  of  lasting  value,  and 
then  only  can  the  mind  be  broadened  in  all  its 
phases.  The  course  of  instruction  must  not  com- 
prise too  many  subjects  to  be  taught  at  once. 
Too  many  studies  tend  rather  to  weaken  than  to 
strengthen  the  mind.  In  order  to  develop  the 
physical  powers,  book  studies  and  practical  work 
must  be  combined  in  all  the  school  exercises. 
If  the  child  spends  seven  hours  a  day  at  school, 
at  least  two  of  these  seven  hours  should  be  devoted 
to  physical  work. 

The  objections  to  the  present  system  of  educa- 
tion are  as  follows :  first,  the  children  take  up 
the  study  of  abstract  subjects  at  too  early  an  age ; 
second,  the  subjects  succeed  one  another  too 
rapidly,  so  that  the  thorough  mastery  of  any  one 
subject  becomes  impossible ;  third,  the  children 
are  compelled  to  remain  seated  and  inactive  for 
too  great  a  period  of  time ;  and,  fourth,  they  have 
no  practical  work. 

Up  to  the  age  of  seven  years  the  child  should 
be  busied  with  nothing  but  manual  work  and 
games,  after  which  theoretical  work  and  prac- 


EVA   RO  DEE'S  MODEL  SERIES 

tical  exercises,  manual  work,  games,  and  gym- 
nastics should  be  combined  in  such  a  way  that 
one  exercise  will  relieve  another,  and  prevent 
the  child  from  growing  tired. 

The  books  in  use  must  be  brief,  and  some 
reading-book  should  be  used  in  every  class. 
The  greater  part  of  the  time  should  be  devoted 
to  the  art  of  reading,  writing,  and  speaking  the 
mother  tongue.  Courses  in  moral  instruction, 
the  rules  for  health,  and  the  laws  and  customs  of 
the  country  should  be  obligatory  in  every  school. 

Girls  at  the  age  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  should 
receive  instruction  in  matters  pertaining  to  the 
home,  and  boys  of  the  same  age  should  be  taught 
the  various  kinds  of  manual  work. 

Froebel's  system  may  be  applied  to  children  up 
to  the  fifth  year.  From  the  fifth  to  the  eighth 
year  suitable  manual  work  should  be  provided, 
with  the  use  of  light  tools ;  from  the  eighth  to 
the  eleventh  year,  manual  work  with  larger  and 
heavier  tools,  in  various  kinds  of  wood  suitable 
for  the  making  of  simple  models;  and  from  the 
eleventh  to  the  thirteenth  year,  the  Sloyd  Sys- 
tem of  Naas  will  be  found  very  valuable. 

EVA   KODITE. 
GOTHENBURG,   February,  1801. 


THE  EVA   HO  DUE  MODELS 


223 


THE    EVA    RODHE    MODEL    SERIES. 

(A  Series  for  Children  from  five  to  eight  years  of  age.) 

List  of  the  Models. 

All  the  models  are  to  be  made  of  thin  birch  or  cedar  wood  ; 
the  thickness  to  be  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch. 


I.  Fish-line  winder.* 
II.  Key  label.* 
III.  Sewing  stand.* 
IV.  Thread  paper.* 
V.  Palette  (play  toy).* 
VI.  Cutting  board.* 
VII.  Darning-needle.* 
VIII.  Bottle  label.* 
IX.  Clothes  hanger  (play 

toy).* 

X.  Plant  label.* 
XI.  Stocking  board  (play 

toy).* 

XII.  Chopping  board  (play 
toy).* 

XIII.  Potter's   knife    (play 

toy).* 

XIV.  Shovel  (play  toy).* 
XV.  Leaf.* 

XVI.  Flower  stick.* 
XVII.  Butter    knife     (play 

toy).* 

XVIII.  Baker's  shovel  (play 
toy).* 


XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 
XXXII. 

XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 

XXXV. 


XXXVI. 
XXXVII. 


Glass  stand.* 
Clothes-pin.* 
Pointer.* 
Ribbon  holder.* 
Picture  frame  (play 

toy).* 

Flower-pot  foot.* 
Flower-pot  spade.* 
Flower-pot  hoe.* 
Paper-cutter.* 
Penholder.* 
Ladder. 
Lace  winder  (used 

in  knitting).* 
Leaf.* 
Bean-sling   (play 

toy).* 

Crochet-needle. 
Knife-holder. 
Bread-board  in 

form   of   a    fish 

(play  toy).* 
Soldier  (play  toy). 
Castanets.* 


Drawings  of  the  starred  models  will  be  found  on  pp.  227-234. 


224  EVA   RODHE'S  MODEL  SERIES 


XXXVIII.  Jack  in  the  box.* 
XXXIX.  Stand.* 
XL.  Egg-cup. 
XLI.  Toothbrush  hold- 
er. 

XLIL  Ironing  board. 
XLIII.  Desk  protector. 
XLIV.  Frame  saw  (play 
toy). 


XLV.  Key-rack. 
XLVL  Crocodile  (letter 
opener),   (play 
toy). 

XLVII.  Sledge  (play  toy). 
XLVIII.  Easel.* 
XLIX.  Roller-stand.* 

L.  Horse    and    rider 
(play  toy). 


THE    EVA    RODHE     MODELS. 

Models  Nos.  II.  and  XXVII.  furnish  an  illus- 
tration of  the  method  of  making  all  of  the 
models  of  this  series. 

Model  No.    II. 
'Key  Label   of  thin    Birch  or  Cedar. 

A  piece  of  wood  somewhat  larger  than  the 
model  is  placed  in  the  vise  of  the  bench.  By 
means  of  a  spokeshave  its  rough  sides 1  are  planed 
down,  and  they  are  smoothed  with  a  scraper. 
The  teacher  should  draw  a  straight  line  close  to 
one  of  the  edges  with  rule.  The  child  is  to  saw 
off  close  to  this  line.  The  edge  is  now  to  be 
smoothed  with  file.  With  try-square  draw  a 

1  Here,  as  in  the  "  Niias  Series,"  the  expression  "  sides  " 
refers  to  the  two  broad  surfaces ;  "  edges,"  to  the  two  narrow 
surfaces ;  "  ends,"  to  the  two  in  which  are  the  extremities  of 
the  fibers, 


THE  EVA   RODHE  MODELS  225 

line  close  to  Jone  of  the  ends,  straight  across  one 
of  the  sides.  Saw  out  and  file  down  to  this 
second  line.  Lay  off  7  cm.,  or  2|f  in.,  along 
the  edge,  and  draw  a  line  across  one '  of  the 
sides.  With  compass  lay  off  a  distance  of  2  cm., 
or  |-|  in.,  and  describe  a  semicircle.  Saw  out 
and  file  down.  The  hole  is  bored  with  brad-awl. 
Smooth  with  scraper  and  sand-paper. 

Model  No.  XXVII. 
Paper-cutter  of  thin  Birch  or  Cedar. 

Plane  down  with  spokeshave  as  in  previous 
model.  A  drawing  of  the  model  is  made  with 
pencil,  rule,  and  try-square.  Saw  close  to  the 
lines  and  file  down.  The  cutting  edge  of  the 
model  is  made  with  spokeshave,  file,  and  scraper, 
working  first  on  one  side,  and  then  on  the  other. 
The  teacher  should  mark  on  the  object  how 
much  is  to  be  worked  away.  Smooth  the  model 
with  sand-paper. 

Experience  has  taught  us  that  children  of 
five  to  nine  years  of  age  should  not  be  permitted 
to  use  the  knife,  as  they  are  apt  to  cut  themselves. 
The  tools  used  in  the  Eva  Rodhe  Series  are  the 
saw,  file,  hammer,  bit,  spokeshave,  scraper,  brad- 
awl, marking  awl,  compass,  meter  measure  or 
rule,  and  try-square. 


226  EVA  RODHE'S  MODEL  SERIES 

It  is  best  to  allow  the  child  to  use  the  saw  for 
a  few  lessons  before  he  begins  the  making  of  the 
models.  Very  little  sand-paper  should  be  used, 
and  that  only  where  it  is  absolutely  necessary. 

The  tools  are  somewhat  smaller  than  ordinary 
mechanics'  tools,  being  made  of  such  a  size  and 
weight  as  not  to  overtax  the  strength  of  the 
child. 


No.  1. 


THE  EVA   ROD  HE  MODELS 

No.  2.  No.  4. 


227 


228 


EVA   ROD  HE'S  MODEL   SERIES 


No.  0. 


No.  10. 


No.  1J. 


THE  EVA   RODHE  MODELS 


229 


No.  15. 


No.  16. 


No.  17. 


230  EVA   RODHE'S  MODEL   SERIES 

No.  19.  No.  23. 


No.  24. 


-2— -» 


.No.  20. 


No.  21.  No.  22.  A'o.  25. 

2 


H 


THE  EVA   ROD  HE  MODELS 


231 


No.  26. 


No.  27. 


No.  28. 


EVA   RODHE'S  MODEL  SERIES 
No.  31. 


No.  37. 


THE  EVA   RODHfi  MODEhS 


233 


No.  3$. 


RODHE'S   MODEL   SERIES 


No.  48. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE    PROGRESS    OF    THE    SLOYD    IN    THE    ELE- 
MENTARY   PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 


EXTENSION    OF  THE    MOVEMENT   IN    EUROPE 
AND  AMERICA. 

IN  1870  the  Sloyd  was  first  taught  in  some  of 
the  primary  schools  of  Sweden.  Secretary 
of  State  Carlson,  who  at  that  time  was  also  at 
the  head  of  the  ecclesiastical  department,  took  a 
great  interest  in  this  question,  and  in  1877  he 
introduced  a  bill  in  the  "  Kikstag  "  (Congress), 
suggesting  the  adoption  of  a  system  of  manual 
work  for  all  the  schools  throughout  the  king- 
dom. As  a  direct  consequence  of  his  resolution, 
there  appeared  on  the  llth  of  September  of  that 
year  a  royal  mandate  to  the  effect  that  to  each 
school  where  the  Sloyd  had  been  taught  a 
yearly  stipend  of  75  kroner  ($21.00)  should  be 
paid.  This  was  intended  to  meet  the  expense 
'of  the  material  to  be  used.1  At  this  time  a  grant 

1  In  Sweden,  the  average  cost  for  wood  used  by  one  child 
is  about  50  ore  (14  cents)  per  year,  the  child  working  four 
hours  a  week  and  thirty-six  weeks  per  year.  In  Stockholm, 

235 


236  '    THE  PROGRESS  OF  TBE  SLOYD 

of  1,500  kroner  was  paid  each  year  to  about  200 
schools.  However,  the  number  of  schools  in 
which  the  Sloyd  was  taught  increased  so  rapidly 
that  in  1889  1,278  schools  were  receiving  a  sub- 
vention. 

In  1876  a  private  normal  Sloyd  school  was 
established  in  Karlstad,  and  in  1877  the  govern- 
ment laid  a  proposition  before  the  "  Rikstag " 
to  introduce  the  Sloyd  in  all  of  the  public 
seminaries  for  teachers.  At  this  time,  as  well 
as  in  1880  (when  the  same  question  was  moved 
by  individual  members),  the  "  Rikstag  "  rejected 
the  proposition,  and  it  was  not  until  1887  that 
it  was  finally  agreed  to  introduce  the  work  in 
three  public  normal  colleges — Karlstad,  Lund, 
and  Hernosand. 

The  "Landsting"  (State  Assemblies),  the  Hus- 
hallningssallskap  (Industrial  and  Agricultural 
Associations),  and  several  prominent  private 
persons  had  worked  zealously  for  this  purpose. 
The  Board  of  Aldermen  of  Stockholm  introduced 
the  Sloyd  in  their  city  schools  in  1876.  In 
Gothenburg,  it  had  been  introduced  on  a  small 
scale  in  1872,  and  five  years  later  it  was  taught 
in  all  the  schools. 

the  children  work  forty-one  weeks,  and  seven  and  a  half  hours 
per  week,  and  the  average  cost  is  one  kroner  (28  cents). 


THE  MOVEMENT  IN  EUROPE  AND  AMERICA      237 

At  first,  the  work  consisted  in  teaching  the 
elements  of  the  various  trades.  In  Stockholm, 
the  transition  to  a  regular  educational  manual 
training  system  took  place  in  1882,  and  in 
Gothenburg  in  1887.  In  Gefle,  Norkoping,  Lin- 
koping,  Malmo,  and  various  other  towns,  the 
educational  Sloyd  was  taught  from  the  outset. 
In  the  summer  of  1887  a  general  meeting  of 
Swedish  teachers  was  held  in  Gothenburg.  Uni- 
versal satisfaction  was  expressed  as  to  the  results 
of  this  work.  The  academical  authorities  at 
Upsala  and  Lund  have  offered  their  students 
opportunities  to  do  Sloyd  work  during  certain 
hours  of  each  day. 

At  the  Naas  Sloyd  Normal  College,  the 
method  of  instruction  was  originally  worked 
out.  Though  the  Sloyd  is  not  a  compulsory  sub- 
ject, there  are  in  Sweden  nearly  1,500  schools  out 
of  a  possible  3,800,  which  have  introduced  the 
teaching  of  the  "  Naas  System."  Since  the  Naas 
was  established  in  1875,  up  to  September,  1890, 
1,349  teachers  (1,060  of  them  being  Swedes)  have 
taken  longer  or  shorter  courses  there. 

In  Norway,  the  "  Storting  "  (Congress)  of  1866 
accepted  the  proposition  of  the  government,  and 
decided  to  give  to  every  public  school  in  which 
Sloyd  was  taught  the  sum  of  80  kroner.  The 


238  THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  SLOYD 

Sloyd  is  taught  in  six  public  normal  colleges,  and 
also  at  the  "  Fredrikshaldssloyd-forenings  Arbeids- 
kole  "  (Fredrickshall  Sloyd  Association  Working 
School).  The  instruction  in  all  of  the  schools 
is  in  wood  Sloyd,  and  the  pupils  who  have  had 
at  least  two  hundred  hours'  instruction,  and  have 
done  the  required  amount  of  work,  receive  a 
special  mention  of  this  fact  in  their  graduation 
diplomas.  According  to  the  new  Norwegian 
school  law,  the  Sloyd  is  compulsory  for  boys  of 
the  age  of  eleven  and  twelve  years,  and  optional 
for  younger  or  older  pupils. 

By  the  statute  of  May,  1866,  manual  work  was 
made  obligatory  for  the  country  schools,  and 
optional  for  the  city  schools,  of  Finland.  In  all 
teachers'  seminaries,  some  manual  work  is  at 
present  being  taught.  In  the  public  schools  there 
are  many  lady  teachers,  and  special  courses  have 
been  arranged  for  them.  The  Finnish  Hushall- 
ningssallskap  encourage  this  work  by  giving 
yearly  stipends  and  distributing  models  and 
drawings. 

Educational  Sloyd  is  of  recent  date  in  Den- 
mark. In  the  autumn  of  1885  a  Danish  Sloyd 
Union  was  formed,  which  assisted  the  establish- 
ment of  a  Teachers'  Sloyd  School  in  Copenhagen, 
and  the  introduction  of  this  work  into  ten 


THE  MOVEMENT  IN  EUROPE  AND  AMERICA    239 

private  high  schools.  It  is  generally  in  the  high 
schools  that  the  Sloyd  has  been  carried  on.  In 
1882  the  "  Kjobenhavn-Husflidsforening  "  (Copen- 
hagen Home  Industrial  Society)  established  a 
large  Sloyd  school  for  the  children  of  the  "  Koni- 
muneskolerne  "  (Public  Schools). 

In  Germany,  the  "  Deutscher  Verein  fiir  erzieh- 
lische  Knaben-handarbeit "  (German  Association 
for  Educational  Manual  Work  for  Boys),  which 
counts  among  its  members  some  of  the  most 
prominent  men  in  Germany,  has  been  very  suc- 
cessful in  its  propaganda  in  behalf  of  this 
movement,  especially  so  when  we  take  into 
consideration  the  conservatism  that  has  always 
existed  among  German  teachers.  The  govern- 
ments of  Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Alsace-Lorraine 
have  given  both  moral  and  material  support 
to  the  system.  Sloyd  schools  have  been  organ- 
ized in  a  great  many  cities,  and  the  German 
Government,  which  yearly  calls  a  congress  of 
the  friends  of  Sloyd  instruction,  has  founded  a 
normal  college  in  Leipzig. 

In  southern  Austria- Hungary  and  in  Bohemia, 
the  movement  has  progressed  very  rapidly.  The 
Sloyd  has  been  introduced  as  an  elective  subject 
in  the  elementary  schools.  In  Hungary  this 
work  dates  back  to  1870,  when  the  minister  of 


240  THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  SLOYD 

public  instruction  issued  an  order  that  instruc- 
tion be  given  in  at  least  one  of  the  following 
subjects  to  all  the  boys  of  the  primary  schools ; 
viz.,  agriculture,  gardening,  silk-cultivation,  or 
Sloyd.  In  1881  manual  training  was  made  com- 
pulsory in  twenty-four  state  seminaries  for 
teachers,  and  in  the  Normal  College  of  Buda 
Pesth  a  three  years'  course  was  introduced. 

In  Russia,  in  the  State  Normal  College  of  St. 
Petersburg  and  in  several  other  teachers'  semi- 
naries of  that  city,  since  1884,  Sloyd  has  been 
taught.  For  lack  of  means,  the  work  has  pro- 
gressed but  slowly.  In  the  Baltic  provinces, 
much  has  been  done  to  further  the  Swedish 
system. 

The  local  governments  of  several  of  the  can- 
tons of  Switzerland  have,  during  the  last  seven 
years,  supported  private  efforts  for  establishing 
Sloyd  courses  for  teachers. 

About  four  years  ago,  a  commission  of  seven- 
teen gentlemen  from  Italy  was  sent  by  the 
Italian  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  to  study 
the  various  manual  training  systems  of  Europe, 
and  more  especially  the  Swedish  system  of 
Sloyd  instruction.  Each  member  of  this  body 
took  a  course  of  Naas,  and  has  since  then  per- 
sonally directed  a  class  for  teachers  at  home. 


THE  MOVEMENT  IN  EUROPE  AND  AMERICA     241 

The  law  of  March  28,  1882,  passed  by  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  and  the  Senate  in  France, 
made  manual  training  compulsory  in  all  normal 
as  well  as  public  elementary  schools.  At  that 
time,  the  "  Ecole  normale  speciale  pour  1'enseigne- 
ment  du  travail  manuel "  (Special  Teachers' 
Seminary  for  Manual  Training  Instruction)  was 
established.  Though  this  institution  has  been 
abolished,  the  study  of  this  subject  is  carried  on 
in  about  one  hundred  schools  of  Paris ;  the  most 
prominent  school  is  the  "  Rue  Tournefort."  At 
the  international  meeting  in  Havre,  in  1885,  it 
was  stated  that  manual  work  was  a  necessary 
feature  in  every  rational  system  of  education. 

The  officers  of  the  late  liberal  government  of 
Belgium  had  already  begun  to  make  arrangements 
to  introduce  the  Sloyd  in  normal  and  primary 
schools,  when  through  the  election  of  1884  they 
were  compelled  to  go  out  of  office.  The  members 
of  the  present  clerical  ministerial  party  expressed 
their  views  in  1887,  at  which  time  the  minister 
of  public  instruction  stated  that  he  had  the 
greatest  sympathy  with  the  movement,  and  that 
the  government  would  soon  take  active  steps  in 
the  matter.  As  a  result,  courses  for  teachers 
were  formed,  all  of  which  have  been  very  largely 
attended.  Two  societies — "  Societe  nationale  du 


242  THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  SLOTD 

travail  manuel  "  and  "  Le  Sloyd  " — have  worked 
for  its  introduction  in  the  public  schools. 

In  England,  a  very  active  propaganda  in  favor 
of  the  adoption  of  the  Swedish  Sloyd  has  been 
going  on.  The  most  recent  school  laws  are 
strongly  in  sympathy  with  the  movement,  and 
many  school  boards  have  made  arrangements 
for  the  introduction  of  the  system.  A  great  many 
teachers  have  studied  at  Naas.  Several  societies 
—"The  Union  of  Sloyd  Teachers  Trained  at 
Naas"  and  the  "Sloyd  Association" — have  been 
organized  by  those  interested  in  the  matter. 

The  new  school  law  of  Scotland  is  even  stronger 
in  its  Sloyd  clause  than  the  English  law. 

American  teachers  have  shown  a  deep  interest 
in  educational  manual  work.  Various  systems 
of  manual  training  have  been  introduced  in  the 
school  courses.  In  New  York,  Boston,  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  other  places,  the  Swedish  Sloyd  has 
been  introduced  in  private  institutions. 

Argentine  Republic,  Chile,  and  Uruguay  have  sent 
representatives  to  Naas  to  study  the  Sloyd,  with  a 
view  to  adopting  it  in  their  primary  schools. 

The  Government  of  Japan  has  the  intention  of 
introducing  this  work  during  the  ensuing  year. 

Holland,  Spain,  and  Brazil  have  likewise  taken 
active  steps  in  this  direction. 


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